Mixco Viejo

Template:Maya civilization Template:Bots Mixco Viejo (Template:IPA) ("Old Mixco"), occasionally called Jilotepeque Viejo, is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango department of Guatemala, some Template:Convert to the north of Guatemala City and Template:Convert from the junction of the rivers Pixcaya and Motagua. It is a moderate sized ruined city of the Postclassic Maya civilization.

The archaeological site and tourist attraction of Mixco Viejo was named after being erroneously associated with the Postclassic Poqomam capital referred to in colonial records by that name. The archaeological site has now been identified as Jilotepeque Viejo, the capital of the Chajoma kingdom.<ref>Hill 1998, pp. 229–254.</ref> To distinguish between the two, the ruins of the Chajoma capital are now referred to as Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) while the former Poqomam capital is referred to as Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo).

This confusion in the identification of the site has hindered study. The Chajoma capital has been investigated archaeologically, under the assumption that it was the Poqomam capital. Although the Chajoma ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo have been well described archaeologically, the archaeological data has been associated with the history of a different site entirely.<ref>Carmack 2001, pp.175-176.</ref> Doubts about the identification of the archaeological site were first raised by Robert M. Carmack, who realised that the supposed Poqomam capital was not located within the Poqomam linguistic area but rather within the linguistic area of the Kaqchikels. The Poqomam who were settled in the new colonial settlement of Mixco by the Spanish had a long history of fine polychrome ceramic production, but no evidence of such production had been recovered during archaeological investigations, and the ruins were considered too distant from colonial Mixco.<ref>Carmack 2001, pp.143-144.</ref>

Chinautla Viejo was attacked by the invading Spanish in 1525; the first two attacks against the heavily fortified city were unsuccessful. The besieged city received Poqomam reinforcements that were comprehensively defeated on an open field of battle, with the Spanish cavalry being decisive. The capture of Poqomam prisoners allowed the Spanish to discover the location of a cave providing a secret entrance to the city. A third assault broke the month-long siege, allowing the Spanish to take the city. The surviving inhabitants were moved to another settlement and Pedro de Alvarado ordered the city to be burned.

Jilotepeque Viejo was settled by the Chajoma in order to provide a capital that was safer from attack from the hostile Iximche Kaqchikel kingdom than their previous capital. In spite of this, the city fell under the domination of Iximche and the city's architecture, spread in a number of fortified groups along a ridge surrounded by deep ravines, shows a mixture of Chajoma and Kaqchikel styles. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Chajoma of Jilotepeque Viejo may have initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with Iximche and have joined in the general Kaqchikel uprising against the Spanish in 1524. The site was abandoned after the conquest and never reoccupied.

Mixco Viejo in history: Chinautla Viejo

The historical Mixco Viejo has been identified as Chinautla Viejo ("Old Chinautla"), near the modern town of Mixco.<ref>Carmack 2001, p.158.</ref> Mixco Viejo ("Old Mixco") was the capital of the Poqomam Maya kingdom, and was founded on a defensive mountain-top location in the 12th century AD. The peak population in the early 16th century may have been around 10,000 people.

In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo), the capital of the Poqomam. At the Spanish approach, the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city. The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses. Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back. The Poqomam then received reinforcements, possibly from Chinautla, and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city. The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry, forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw.<ref name="Lehmann68p11-13">Lehmann 1968, pp. 11–13.</ref> The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river, allowing the inhabitants to come and go.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 11–13. Recinos, Adrian 1952, 1986, p. 108.</ref>

Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners, Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west, in single file owing to its narrowness, with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets, each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield. This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city. The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city, and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their Mesoamerican allies. Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave, the survivors were captured and brought back to the city. The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city, Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco.<ref name="Lehmann68p11-13"/>

Archaeological site: Jilotepeque Viejo

Template:Infobox ancient site Although the site now known as Mixco Viejo was traditionally considered the Poqomam capital, recent investigations have instead identified the ruins as the capital of the Kaqchikel-speaking Chajoma Maya,<ref>Hill 1998, p.251. Carmack 2001, p.175.</ref> and have suggested that its identification as the historical Mixco Viejo is the result of confusion in the interpretation of colonial records.<ref>Hill 1998, pp. 229–30, 250–2. Sharer 2006, pp.621, 625. Love 2007, p.305.</ref> The site was apparently known to the Chajoma by a variety of names, including Chuapec Kekacajol Nima Abaj (also spelt Chuwa Pek Q'eqak'ajol Nima Ab'aj), meaning "Great stone in front of the Cave of the Children of Night", Zakicajol and Nimcakajpec.<ref>Hill 1996, pp.64, 67. Van Akkaren 2002, p.57.n.5.</ref> Jilotepeque Viejo is estimated to have had a population of approximately 1,500 inhabitants.<ref name="Arroyo01p42"/> Jilotepeque was close to the San Martín Jilotepeque obsidian source, giving the inhabitants ready access to the resource.<ref name="Arroyo01p42"/>

The site is open to the public and has a small museum. The site was declared a protected archaeological zone by Ministerial Accord 1210 of the Guatemalan Ministry of Education on 12 June 1970.<ref>Araujo 2006, pp.31-32.</ref>

Location

The ruins are situated at the northeastern extreme of the department of Chimaltenango within the municipality of San Martín Jilotepeque;<ref name="Lehmann68p7-8"/> they are strung out over Template:Convert along a Template:Convert high ridge approximately Template:Convert from the point where the Pixcaya River flows into the Motagua River, which drains into the Caribbean Sea. The ruins are surrounded by deep ravines dropping off sharply into a tributary of the Pixcaya River.<ref name="Lehmann1968p7">Lehmann 1968, p.7.</ref> The site is Template:Convert from Guatemala City by road.<ref>Kelly 1996, p.190.</ref>

History

Known rulers

All dates are approximate.

Name	Ruled	Alternative names
Lajuj No'j	c.1450–c.1480<ref>Carmack 2001, p.153. Hill 1996, p.67. Hill 1998, p.237.</ref>	Ichalkan Chi Kumkwat, Ychal Amollac Chicumcuat
Achi Q'alel	early 16th century<ref name="Carmack01p155"/>	–

Postclassic

Around 1450 the Chajoma, led by their king Lajuj No'j,<ref group="nb">Lajuj No'j was his name in Kaqchikel. He was also known by the Nahuatl name Ichalkan Chi Kumkwat. Carmack 2001, p.153.</ref> moved to Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) from Ochal to make their capital more inaccessible to their hostile neighbours.<ref>Carmack 2001, pp. 152–3. Fox 1987, 2008, p.190.</ref> In spite of this, Iximche defeated the Chajoma and Jilotepeque Viejo became subject to the Kaqchikel kingdom. Groups C and E show Kaqchikel influence in their architectural styles, while groups A and B have a purer Chajoma architectural style. Both ballcourts appear to have been remodelled after the Kaqchikel fashion, with thick coatings of stucco.<ref>Fox 1987, 2008, pp.187, 190–191.</ref>

Around the 13th century, Group A underwent a major remodelling, including the construction of a new retaining wall and the infilling of the Template:Convert wide area between the old and new walls, creating a much expanded terrace for the construction of the group's architecture.<ref name="Lehmann1968p474849n15"/> Owing to its possession of two ballcourts, it is possible that Jilotepeque Viejo served as a regional centre for the Mesoamerican ballgame during the Postclassic; no other Postclassic ballcourt has been identified in the area of San Martín Jilotepeque although three of four Classic period ballcourts at other sites appear to have continued in use.<ref>Braswell 1998, p.147.</ref> Shortly before the Spanish Conquest, the Chajoma under their lord Achi Q'alel rebelled against the Kaqchikels of Iximche.<ref name="Carmack01p155"/>

It is possible that the Chajoma of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with the Kaqchikel kingdom of Iximche, and that they also rebelled against the Spanish in 1524. It is known that when the lords of Iximche broke their alliance with the conquistadors, they took refuge in Jilotepeque.<ref name="Carmack01p155">Carmack 2001, p.155.</ref> The site was abandoned after the Spanish conquest and the inhabitants were moved by the Spanish to San Martín Jilotepeque, after which the area was never reoccupied.<ref>Carmack 2001, p.149.</ref>

Modern history

German geographer Karl Sapper visited the ruins in 1896 and published a brief description of the ruins together with a site map two years later in a 6-page pamphlet by the Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie of Leyden in the Netherlands, entitled Die Ruinen von Mixco, Guatemala.<ref>Lehmann 1968, p.15. American Philosophical Society.</ref> It was Sapper who labelled each of the archaeological groups and their attendant structures.<ref>Lehmann 1968, p.17.</ref> American archaeologist A. Ledyard Smith visited the ruins in 1949 and wrote a chapter about the site in his Archaeological Reconnaissance in Central America, published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1955.<ref>Lehmann 1968, p.16. Wauchope 1956, p.942.</ref> Archeological excavations were carried out from 1954 through 1967 by the Musée de l'Homme of Paris under the direction of archaeologist Henri Lehmann,<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 16–17.</ref> who certainly believed that he was excavating the Pocomam capital as described in Colonial records.<ref name="Lehmann68p7-8">Lehmann 1968, pp. 7–8.</ref>

Although the site was restored during the archaeological investigations, it suffered considerable damage in the 1976 Guatemala earthquake. This resulted in destruction of some of the restoration work, although some of the damage has now been repaired.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 188–189.</ref>

Site description

The ruins consist of 15 groups containing the remains of over 120 major structures, including temples, palaces, and courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame.<ref name="Lehmann1968p7"/> When the site was excavated, the surface was found to be littered with abundant obsidian blades and arrowheads.<ref name="Lehmann1968p22"/> Originally the city had its main entrance on the western side, a modern road has now been cut through to the ruins from the west along a similar route.<ref name="Lehmann1968p25">Lehmann 1968, p.25.</ref>

The relatively short period of occupation at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) led to an unusual unity of architectural styles for a Mesoamerican city.<ref name="Lehmann1968p20"/> Almost all archaeological finds at the city, including both artefacts and earlier versions of later structures, date to the last few hundred years before the Spanish conquest.<ref name="Lehmann1968p20"/> The architecture was built with mica and pumice slabs, in some cases this was coated with stucco.<ref name="Arroyo01p42">Arroyo 2001, p.42.</ref> Stone sculpture is almost totally absent from the city, the only example being a ballcourt marker in the form of a serpent's head with jaws agape and a human head emerging from its mouth.<ref name="Lehmann1968p22">Lehmann 1968, p.22.</ref> Originally some buildings were decorated with painted stucco but this is so poorly preserved that only a few fragments remain.<ref name="Lehmann1968p22"/>

A population estimate derived from the number of residential remains suggests that the city had approximately 1450 to 1600 inhabitants.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p462">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, p.462.</ref>

Architectural groups

The architecture is divided into a number of groups and subgroups, labelled by archaeologists as Groups A through to L; those subgroups belonging to Groups A, B, C and E that fall outside the city walls are indicated with the addition of an X or an apostrophe after the group name, to give Group A-X, Group B-X, Group C' and Group E'.<ref name="Lehmann1968p20">Lehmann 1968, p.20.</ref>

Group A

Group A is located on the northern end of the ridge.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10">Lehmann 1968, p.10.</ref> The group was extended during major remodelling work that included the building of the final versions of Platforms A2 and A3 on the north side; this involved building a new retaining wall some Template:Convert further north, east and southeast and filling in the area between the new and old walls to create a greatly expanded terrace.<ref name="Lehmann1968p474849n15">Lehmann 1968, pp. 47–48, 49.n15.</ref> Traces of charcoal at the base of the old retaining wall have been radiocarbon dated to the 13th century, indicating that the expansion of Group A took place no earlier than that.<ref>Lehmann 1968, p.49.n15.</ref>

Pyramid A1 is one of the principal structures of Group A, together with the ballcourt. The pyramid is Template:Convert high and measures Template:Convert at the base. It was built using cut stone and has four stepped levels, each of which terminates in a cornice. The pyramid faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways with 27 steps each. The stairways are flanked by smooth balustrades built from well-fitted slabs. The summit of the pyramid supports a Template:Convert high platform that once formed the base for the summit temple. The pyramid was built over another structure, a stucco platform with two levels, the upper of which terminated in a cornice.<ref name="Lehmann1968p47">Lehmann 1968, p.47.</ref>

Platform A2 is built along the edge of the retaining wall behind Pyramid A1. It faces west towards the pyramid and has two access stairways. Three successive versions of the platform were built, each overlying the previous. The earliest version sat upon the early retaining wall, as did the second version. The final version was much larger and was built after the new retaining wall had extended the available area for Group A.<ref name="Lehmann1968p48"/>

Platform A3 encloses the north side of the eastern part of the Group A plaza.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp.10, 47.</ref> It faces south onto the plaza and was accessed via two stairways on that side. The platform was built over an earlier structure that was built on top of an early tiered retaining wall; the earlier structure extended Template:Convert above the retaining wall.<ref name="Lehmann1968p47"/> The final version extended Template:Convert further to the west and Template:Convert further to the north. It had two levels, each terminating in a cornice. On the north side a Template:Convert wide bench extends along the base of the wall.<ref name="Lehmann1968p48">Lehmann 1968, p.48.</ref>

Platform A4 divides the Group A plaza in two. It was a later addition to Group A during the reorganisation of the group that involved the destruction of the earlier building under Platform A5. When excavated it was very poorly reserved but was able to be reliably restored. There was no earlier version of the structure; it consists of a platform with two levels that faces east towards the principal architecture of Group A. The upper level is topped with a cornice and access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades.<ref name="Lehmann1968p46">Lehmann 1968, p.46.</ref>

Platform A5 closes the north side of the Group A plaza. The platform has two levels upon a base and a cornice terminating the walls. The platform faces south towards the plaza and ballcourt. The platform was accessed via four stairways, each with nine steps; they were flanked by steep ramps or balustrades. The visible version of Platform A5 covers the remains of an earlier structure.<ref name="Lehmann1968p45"/> The earlier building was a large platform with a north-south orientation as opposed to the east-west orientation of Platform A5. The surviving parts were investigated by archaeologists and consist of the north wall and parts of the west facade. The north wall was Template:Convert wide, suggesting that the earlier platform was very large and probably extended south almost as far as the ballcourt.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 45–46.</ref> Two funerary urns were excavated from the earlier platform.<ref name="Fauvet-Berthelot96p468-469">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, pp. 468–469.</ref>

Platform A6 encloses the western extreme of the Group A plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> The platform has two levels, the upper of which has a vertical cornice. The platform faces east onto the plaza; access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades terminating in vertical cornices. Platform A6 was built over an older version of the same building; this earlier construction phase was smaller and its stairways were destroyed in order to build the stairways of the final version. During restoration work carried out by archaeologists the back wall and a section of the facade were left exposed.<ref name="Lehmann1968p45">Lehmann 1968, p.45.</ref> Four funerary urns were found associated with the platform, mostly interred under the front of the building.<ref name="Fauvet-Berthelot96p468-469"/>

Structure A7 is a small square altar in the middle of the eastern part of the Group A plaza. It faces west with steps on that side.<ref name="Lehmann1968p47"/>

Platform A8 is to the east of Pyramid A1, on the eastern side of the Group A plaza. It faces northwest towards the pyramid and had two access stairways. Behind the platform was a finely paved terrace extending along the edge of the retaining wall.<ref name="Lehmann1968p1848">Lehmann 1968, pp.18, 48.</ref>

Platform A9 is to the east of the ballcourt (A11) and faces towards it. It had four access stairways set between corniced balustrades; each stairway had nine steps.<ref name="Lehmann1968p1848"/>

Ballcourt A11 encloses the west side of the Group A plaza, separating it from the retaining wall dropping off to the ravine behind the ballcourt. It is a sunken ballcourt with a north-south orientation and is entirely enclosed. A short sunken stairway leads from the plaza to the top of the south wall. Another stairway descends the south wall to the southern end zone of the ballcourt.<ref name="Lehmann1968p43"/> A matching stairway in the northern end zone provides access from that direction.<ref name="Lehmann1968p44"/> The interior of the ballcourt playing area measures Template:Convert north-south and the playing alley is Template:Convert wide between the side benches.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 43–44.</ref> The walls were built of small stone slabs and have a slight slope; as is common with the architecture of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo), the walls were topped with vertical cornices.<ref name="Lehmann1968p44">Lehmann 1968, p.44.</ref> However, the end zone walls are all completely vertical. Fragments of stucco recovered around the ballcourt indicate that it was at least partly coated.<ref name="Lehmann1968p44"/>

Structure A12 was a residential structure on the southwest side of the Group A plaza between the ballcourt and Platform A6. All that remains of this structure is its outline marked in stones.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 44–45.</ref>

Structure A14 was a residential structure immediately northeast of Platform A5.<ref name="Lehmann1968p45"/>

Structures A31 and A32 were residential structures near platform A5 on the north side of the Group A plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p45"/>

Group A-X

Group A-X defines a number of structures in two subgroups lying outside the walls of Group A, to the northeast and northwest of the main group.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Group B

Group B is near the centre of the site, roughly equidistant between Group A (to the northeast) and Group C (to the southwest).<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> The main plaza of Group B was at the northern end of the group and was enclosed by the ballcourt on the south side, a double pyramid on the east side and three platforms.<ref>Lehmann, pp.10, 39.</ref> A stairway with 28 steps descends the Group B retaining wall behind the northeast corner of the double pyramid, providing an access route towards Group D. On the north side of the group another stairway, with 18 steps divided into two flights, descends towards Group A.<ref name="Lehmann1968p42">Lehmann 1968, p.42.</ref>

Ballcourt B1 is immediately south of the Group B plaza, with the northern entrance to the ballcourt directly accessing the plaza itself.<ref name="Lehmann1968p39"/> It is an enclosed sunken ballcourt, as was common in the Maya highlands during the Late Postclassic.<ref name="Lehmann1968p39"/> The ballcourt is aligned north-south with two transverse end zones forming a capital I shape.<ref>Lehmann, pp. 39–40.</ref> The ballcourt has two entrances in the form of inset stairways in the end zones, in the centre of the ballcourt's north and south walls.<ref name="Lehmann1968p40">Lehmann 1968, p.40.</ref> The side walls of the playing alley are slightly sloped and are topped by a cornice; the playing alley is flanked by two low benches set against the east and west walls. The end zones also possess sloping walls. All the ballcourt walls were built of large stones. The ballcourt playing area measures Template:Convert north-south and is Template:Convert wide between the benches. The end zones measure Template:Convert east-west. The ballcourt was originally coated in stucco painted in a variety of colours; very little of this coating now remains. A drain opening empties runoff rainwater from the east side of the northern end zone; the drain continues under Platform B 2 and empties outside the retaining wall of Group B.<ref name="Lehmann1968p40"/> During archaeological investigation of the ballcourt a well-preserved tenoned ballgame marker was found placed on the western bench. Its original placement was indicated by a hole in the upper part of the ballcourt wall. The second marker that would have been placed directly opposite the first has never been found and the area of the ballcourt wall where it would have been had collapsed prior to excavations. Replicas of the ballcourt marker have been placed in both walls; the original is in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City.<ref name="Lehmann1968p40"/>

Template:Multiple image Platform B2 is aligned northeast to southwest and faces northwest onto the Group B plaza.<ref>Lehmann, pp.10, 40.</ref> It had two access stairways flanked by steep balustrades topped with vertical cornices. Behind the platform two stairways descend Group B's retaining wall towards Group B-X.<ref>Lehmann, pp. 40–41.</ref>

Pyramid B3 is actually two pyramids built upon a single basal platform. Together they comprise the most important architectural unit in Group B. The northern pyramid of the pair is denominated B3a; the southern is B3b. The two pyramids each have five stepped levels and face west onto the plaza. Each pyramid was accessed by a single stairway flanked by wide balustrades; each had a small altar at the base of its stairway. Both stairways had nineteen steps and the pyramids stand Template:Convert high. Low platforms on their summits indicate where the temple buildings once stood.<ref name="Lehmann1968p41"/> The double form of the twin pyramids had its origin in the Valley of Mexico and indicates foreign influences at the city.<ref>Arroyo 2001, p.42. Lehmann 1968, p.41.</ref> A broken stela was excavated from within the fill of Pyramid B3a; it was a plain monument broken in two parts. The bottom section still stood, while the upper section was lying beside it. It is one of very few such monuments raised in the Maya highlands and such stelae are characteristic of the Classic Period (c. 250–900). It is possible that it stands where originally erected before the pyramid was built over it.<ref name="Lehmann1968p41">Lehmann 1968, p.41.</ref> A funerary urn was excavated from underneath the rear of Pyramid B3b.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p467"/>

A drain near the northeast corner of Pyramid B3 carries runoff rainwater from the Group B plaza and channels it outside the retaining wall to the area between Groups B and D.<ref name="Lehmann1968p42">Lehmann 1968, p.42.</ref>

Platform B4 encloses the north side of the Group B plaza. The platform consists of a single level set upon a base and possesses corniced walls. Access was via an inset stairway in the centre of the south side. The platform top was floored with slabs and possessed a low double terrace at the rear.<ref name="Lehmann1968p42"/>

Platform B5 possesses two stepped levels with cornices and encloses the northern part of the west side of the Group B plaza. The lower level possesses a single inset stairway, while the upper terrace has two stairways flanked by balustrades, with a third balustrade dividing the two. The platform provides a broad view across the Pancaco River valley to the west. Structure B5 was built on top of an earlier construction phase, which is exposed along the upper portion of the back wall because restoration of the building only rebuilt the lower portion.<ref name="Lehmann1968p42"/> It was built from stone slabs and was originally taller than the final version of the platform but was cut back to the reduced height of the new building.<ref name="Lehmann1968p43">Lehmann 1968, p.43.</ref>

Pyramid B6 enclosed the southern portion of the west side of the Group B plaza.<ref>Lahmann 1968, pp.10, 42.</ref> It is very poorly preserved and the top of the pyramid has collapsed, leaving only the lower walls. Archaeological investigation revealed that the final version of the pyramid had been built over a preceding version.<ref name="Lehmann1968p43"/>

Structure B7 was a small, well-proportioned rectangular structure south of the main Group A plaza, between the north end of the ballcourt (B1) to the east and Structure B9 to the west.<ref>Lahmann 1968, pp.10, 38–39.</ref> This structure was likely to have been an altar shrine.<ref name="Lehmann1968p39">Lehmann 1968, p.39.</ref>

Platform B8 is a range structure on the west side of Group B.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> It consists of a basal platform supporting inward-sloping walls that terminate in a cornice.<ref name="Lehmann1968p37"/> The building faces east and possesses four access stairways separated by near-vertical balustrades.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 37–38.</ref> The retaining wall of Group B drops away into the neighbouring ravine Template:Convert behind Platform B8.<ref name="Lehmann1968p38">Lehmann 1968, p.38.</ref> A great number of funerary urns were excavated around the base of this platform.<ref name="Lehmann1968p38"/>

Group B-X

Group B-X includes a number of structures in three subgroups outside the walls of Group B; they are to the northwest, northeast and east of Group B itself.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Structure B-X3 is a step pyramid with sides so steep that it is almost cubic in shape. This temple platform would originally have supported a perishable superstructure but no trace of this now remains.<ref name="Lehmann1968p26"/> The pyramid faces west and was accessed by an extremely steep stairway with fifteen steps that faces directly onto the massive Template:Convert high retaining wall of Group B.<ref name="Lehmann1968p27">Lehmann 1968, p.27.</ref> The stairway is flanked by wide balustrades that form the western facade of the temple platform.<ref name="Lehmann1968p27"/> Structure B-X3 has been restored.<ref name="Lehmann1968p26">Lehmann 1968, p.26.</ref>

Structure B-X4 has also been restored. It is a south-facing range structure with four inset access stairways.<ref>Lehmann 1968, pp. 26–27.</ref>

Group C

Group C lies to the southwest of Group B and east of Group E.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> Group C is arranged around two large structures (C1 and C2). It possesses two small plazas; the East Plaza is the larger of the two, enclosing an area to the east of the main temple, Pyramid C1.<ref name="Lehmann1968p103233"/> The East Plaza was accessed via a narrow alley that ran between a large, low platform and a high-status residential structure with a patio (C8).<ref name="Lehmann1968p32"/> An inset stairway climbed outside of the retaining wall of Group C and accessed the East Plaza between the high-status residence and a platform to its east.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33"/> The West Plaza is located behind Platform C2 and is enclosed to the north by three platforms (C9, C10 and C17).<ref name="Lehmann1968p103233">Lehmann 1968, pp.10, 32–33.</ref>

Pyramid C1 is the principal structure in Group C.<ref name="Lehmann1968p29">Lehmann 1968, p.29.</ref> Archaeological investigation uncovered three versions of the pyramid, each built over the last.<ref name="Lehmann1968p29"/> The archaeologists restored the pyramid in such a way as to make a part of each of the three construction phases visible.<ref name="Lehmann1968p29"/> The first phase of construction consisted of a platform of cut pumice blocks.<ref name="Lehmann1968p29"/> This was buried under the second construction phase, which consisted of a five-level stepped pyramid. It had a double stairway on the west side; each stairway had 16 steps. The stairways were flanked and separated by ramps that terminated in sizeable masonry blocks at the top.<ref name="Lehmann1968p29"/> The top of the pyramid stood Template:Convert high and was topped by a temple, parts of which survive and have been restored. The walls were built from packed earth coated with stucco; a section of the northern portion of the rear wall still stands to a height of Template:Convert. A wide stucco bench was built against the rear wall and a concave hollow in the floor was probably designed for the burning of incense. The roof of the temple was likely to have been thatched.<ref name="Lehmann1968p30">Lehmann 1968, p.30.</ref> The third and final construction phase was considerably larger than the preceding versions of the pyramid.<ref name="Lehmann1968p30"/> In its final form the pyramid base measured Template:Convert; it had five corniced levels and only possessed a single stairway in place of the earlier two. The stairway was flanked by two wide ramps, only the lower portion of the stairway and ramps survive.<ref name="Lehmann1968p30"/> The top of the pyramid stood almost Template:Convert higher than the preceding version and preserved parts of the earlier temple building in its infill; the upper platform has largely collapsed and no trace remains of the final version of the temple superstructure.<ref name="Lehmann1968p30"/> Both the second and third versions of the pyramid were originally coated in stucco, parts of which were preserved. New stucco was applied during restoration work to match the original coating.<ref name="Lehmann1968p30"/> Although the pyramid was restored after it was excavated, the 1976 Guatemala earthquake caused considerable damage and the upper portion of the pyramid was reduced to rubble.<ref>Kelly 1996, p.188.</ref>

A burial was excavated from in front of the wall of the earliest version of the pyramid. The associated offerings included a number of clay vessels, a necklace of small gold bells and a copper axe.<ref name="Lehmann1968p30"/> The earliest metal artefacts in the Maya region have been dated to the Terminal Classic period (c.800-900);<ref>Sharer and Traxler 2006, p.576.</ref> the presence of metal artefacts associated with the earliest construction phase at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) demonstrates the short span of the site and suggests that all three construction phases succeeded each other relatively rapidly.<ref name="Lehmann1968p31">Lehmann 1968, p.31.</ref> Further ceramic offerings were deposited under both of the latter two phases and an artificially deformed skull was interred under the central axis of the final version.<ref name="Lehmann1968p31"/>

Platform C2 faces Pyramid C1 and borders the Group C Plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p31"/> The platform is a long rectangular structure measuring Template:Convert (north-south by east-west) and occupies the highest location of any structure at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo). The platform has two levels and has a total height of Template:Convert, the lower of which has a prominent cornice. The east side of the lower level has an inset stairway accessing the upper level. The upper level of the platform is recessed against the rear of the lower level and possesses an elaborate facade with four access stairways separated by corniced ramps. The entire platform was originally coated in stucco, of which only a few traces remain. On the upper level the stucco traces outline where walls once stood, leading archaeologists to conclude that several residential structures once stood on top. Platform C2 was built upon an earlier, shorter platform that possessed a facade composed of thin slabs.<ref name="Lehmann1968p31"/> It is likely that Platform C2 provided restricted access to Pyramid C1.<ref name="Lehmann1968p32">Lehmann 1968, p.32.</ref> A number of funerary urns were excavated from the base of Platform C2.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p467"/>

Structure C6 was an observation platform that formed the south side of the East Plaza. It faced out southwards across the neighbouring valley.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33"/>

Platform C7 is an L-shaped platform that closes the east side and northeast corner of the East Plaza. Steps run the entire length of the platform.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33">Lehmann 1968, p.33.</ref>

Structure C8 is a residential compound that was accessed from the alley running to the East Plaza from behind Pyramid C1. The entrance opened onto the alley from a patio situated in the southern portion of the compound. This patio was surrounded on the east, west and north sides by rooms, with the alley to the south. It was floored with stucco and Structure C8 was the only stuccoed residential building in the whole of the city. The north range of rooms backed directly onto the ravine immediately to the north of Group C; the lower portion of the walls of the west room and of half of the north room still stand. The west room was square while the north room was narrow and probably extended the entire width of the patio. Wear marks in the stucco floor indicate that a door once accessed the north room from the west. The workmanship of Structure C8 was of very high quality and indicates that it was the residence of a member of the city's elite. Its proximity to the large pyramid-temple C1 has led archaeologist Henri Lehmann to speculate that it was once the house of the high priest.<ref name="Lehmann1968p32"/>

Structure C11 was a small pyramid temple in the lower (western) section of Group C. It was built from small slabs of stone and faced west with an access stairway flanked by ramps. The structure overlies an earlier version that was built using pumice.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33"/>

Structure C12 is a south-facing platform built from pumice. It divides the West Plaza in two. The upper surface of the platform is marked by a circle of burnt clay formed by the burning of incense.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33"/>

Structure C13 is a platform closing the southern half of the west side of the West Plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33"/>

Structure C14 is a platform in the lower part of Group C, close to Pyramid C11.<ref name="Lehmann1968p33"/>

Group C'

Group C' is a small group east of Group C; it is immediately south of Group B and adjoins it.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Structure C'1 is an unexcavated mound.<ref name="Lehmann1968p27"/>

Structure C'2 is another unexcavated mound; it is smaller than Structure C'1.<ref name="Lehmann1968p27"/>

Group D

Group D is a dispersed group to the east of Group B.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Pyramid D1 is on the east side of the Group D plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p1049">Lehmann 1968, pp.10, 49.</ref> The pyramid had three stepped levels erected upon a low base. It faces west towards the plaza and had a single access stairway flanked by sloping balustrades that terminate in vertical sections at the upper extremes. The pyramid was of fine workmanship using well-cut stone slabs. However, itw was poorly preserved and the southern part had partially collapsed. The surviving portions of the building allowed it to be accurately restored by archaeologists.<ref>Lehmann 1968, p.50.</ref>

Platform D2 is on the north side of the Group D plaza; it has not been investigated by archaeologists.<ref name="Lehmann1968p1049"/>

Platform D3 is on the south side of the Group D plaza and has not been subject to archaeological investigation.<ref name="Lehmann1968p1049"/>

Structure D4 is a small altar in the centre of the Group D plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p49"/>

Platform D5 is a south-facing range structure of great length with just two access stairways. Excavations uncovered a number of funerary urns deposited under the back wall of the structure,<ref name="Lehmann1968p49">Lehmann 1968, p.49.</ref> the only example burial urns being interred behind such a platform.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p467"/>

Group E

Group E is located to the west of Group C.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> Group E is largely surrounded by steep ravines; the inhabitants of the city cut the cliffs to make them steeper and more defensible, and reinforced them with a retaining wall. Archaeological investigations failed to find any access stairway through the retaining wall to Group E.<ref name="Lehmann1968p36"/>

Pyramid E1 is located on the east side of the Group E plaza and was the most important building in Group E. The pyramid had three construction phases, the oldest of which was built from pumice upon a natural Template:Convert high elevation and was found to be well preserved during excavations of the site. This early phase was packed with rounded pebbles to provide the infill for the second phase of construction. The second version of the pyramid was very poorly preserved; excavations uncovered many stucco fragments but were unable to determine which of the first two construction phases they belonged to. The third and final phase of construction was larger than the preceding versions of the building and encased both them and the natural elevation upon which they stood. The pyramid had four stepped levels upon a basal platform. It faced west with an access stairway flanked by two ramps that terminated in projecting masonry blocks at the top. A small altar was excavated at the base of the pyramid; two stones were found placed upon it. One of these stones was ball-shaped while the other was perforated and may have been a mace or club. A number of funerary urns were excavated at the base of the southern side of the pyramid.<ref name="Lehmann1968p35">Lehmann 1968, p.35.</ref>

Structure E2 is a range structure on the north side of the Group E plaza.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> It has not been subject to archaeological investigation.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p466"/>

Structure E3 is a square altar in the middle of the Group E plaza. It faces towards Pyramid E1.<ref name="Lehmann1968p36">Lehmann 1968, p.36.</ref>

Structure E4 is a platform located behind Pyramid E1 and encloses the eastern side of the Group E plaza. It faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways, both flanked by ramps built from small slabs of stone and with cornices at the top. The platform walls are of fine workmanship, being built with well-cut and carefully fitted pumice. The front portion of the upper platform was paved with stone slabs, and a bench ran the entire length of the back of the platform. The clay floor between the paving and the bench was found to have been burnt. An offering was excavated from the central axis of the platform's base, it consisted of two ring-shaped clubs placed on either side of a stone ball.<ref name="Lehmann1968p36"/>

Platform E6 is situated on the west side of the Group E plaza. It is roughly built from irregularly sized, poorly cut stones. The platform faces east towards Pyramid E1 and has four access stairways. The platform once supported perishable residences; these were built from maize stalks bound together with clay, as evidenced by the imprint of the maize stalks in the fragments of clay wall recovered during excavations. The platform itself was once covered with stucco.<ref name="Lehmann1968p36"/>

Other groups

Group E' is a cluster of small buildings in the trough between the hilltops supporting Groups C and E.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Group F is to the west of Group E.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> Mound F is the main structure within Group F. It slopes gradually away to the west and was not easily defensible on that side, however it lay outside the strong retaining walls of the fortress and appears to have been an observation platform covering the western pass to the city. A retaining wall supported the mound above the pass and a round earth platform upon the mound may have supported a perishable watchtower.<ref name="Lehmann1968p37">Lehmann 1968, p.37.</ref>

Group G consists of a number of small structures strung out along the ridge to the north of Group A.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Group H is a small group to the northeast of Group A.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/> Structure H1 is a platform that uses a natural mound as its base.<ref name="Lehmann1968p47"/>

Group I is also known as the Campana Group. It is the northernmost group at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo).<ref name="Lehmann1968p47"/>

Group J is a cluster of small buildings immediately southwest of Group A and adjoining it.<ref name="Lehmann1968p10"/>

Caves

Three small caves are found in the sides of the ridge supporting the ruins of the city; archaeological investigations have revealed that two of these caves were artificially modified in antiquity.<ref name="Brady93p217">Brady 1993, p.217.</ref>

Cueva de La Lola ("Lola's Cave") is situated below Group A, near the bank of the Pancaco River as it flows to the northwest of the ruins. The cave is Template:Convert deep and Template:Convert wide; for most of its length it is Template:Convert high.<ref name="Brady93p217"/> The cave had been artificially widened and heightened. During the rain season rainwater filtering through the ground below the city flows out as a small waterfall at the bottom of the cave. The cave was used for ceremonial activities, related to the presence of the spring within it and the fact that the walls are formed from green phyllite; greenstone was sacred to the Maya and was associated with water and fertility. Ritual activities in the cave have continued into modern times, with ceremonial fires being lit within.<ref name="Brady93p217"/>

Cueva del Murciélago ("Cave of the Bat") is located at the southern extreme of the site. It is Template:Convert deep; at its widest point it is Template:Convert wide and the cave is Template:Convert high. It was artificially widened to permit access and was still used for Maya ceremonies in the late 20th century, when archaeologists found recent evidence of activity.<ref name="Brady93p217"/>

Funerary offerings

A large quantity of funerary urns have been excavated from the bases of buildings; the deceased were cremated and their ashes collected in the urns. The sides of the urns were perforated with three holes, perhaps to represent the eyes and mouth of the deceased.<ref name="Lehmann1968p20"/> The urns were decorated with polychrome motifs in the form of highly stylised serpent decorations painted in black, red and cream; this style of Maya ceramics has been labelled as Chinautla Polychrome after the site where it was first identified.<ref name="Lehmann1968p20"/> The Postclassic Maya custom of interring the cremated remains of the deceased in urns was restricted to the elite; commoners where buried in simple tombs outside the city centre.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p462"/> In Jilotepeque Viejo urns were usually buried under the front of platform bases or under the sides of pyramids and altars. This was not a general practice among the highland Maya in the Postclassic and represents a tradition unique to the city. Funerary urns have been found interred under all the principal plazas of the city. Approximately equal proportions of urns were interred under platforms and under the ceremonial architecture represented by pyramids and altars, although it is impossible to say if those individuals buried under religious architecture had differing roles than those buried under secular architecture.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p467">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, p.467.</ref>

A total of 52 urns were excavated from the ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo; 8 of these were destroyed by the 1976 earthquake leaving 44 available for study. Twelve of these were in the collection of the Musée de l'Homme in Paris for approximately thirty years;<ref>Fauvet-Berthelot 1996, p.462. Gervais 2000, pp. 693–694.</ref> These urns, together with all other artefacts from Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo), were repatriated to Guatemala in 1998.<ref>Gervais 2000, pp. 693–694.</ref> Each urn contained the cremated remains of a single adult.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p463">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, p.463.</ref> All of these appeared to be mature or elderly adults; the remains of young adults were notably absent, indicating that elite warriors were buried in some other manner.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p464"/> The urns themselves represented a variety of highland ceramic types.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p463"/> Analysis of bone fragments in the cremated remains indicates that the entire body was burnt without any special treatment for the skull, although the offering of a skull was excavated from Pyramid C1. Surviving skull fragments indicated the practice of artificial skull deformation among the elite inhabitants of the city.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p464">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, p.464.</ref> The remains of animal bones were found mixed among a significant portion of the contents of the urns; where identifiable these included deer bones and those of a number of bird species, particularly parrots and birds of prey.<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p465">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, p.465.</ref>

Only six of the urns contained associated funerary offerings:<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p466">Fauvet-Berthelot et al. 1996, p.466.</ref>

Offerings in funerary urns from Jilotepeque Viejo
Urn	Structure<ref name="Fauvet-Berthelot96p468-469"/>	Offering<ref name="FauvetBerthelot96p466"/>
Urn 6317	C2	a small serpentine axe, tweezers and a worked deer bone
Urn 6826	B8	two perforated animal bone tubes and a jadeite bead
Urn 6835	B3b	a small green stone and a piece of a prismatic blade
Urn 6899	?	a copper spatula
Urn 7602	A5	three pieces of greenstone and four jadeite beads
Urn 7607	D1	four obsidian blades, tweezers and a piece of a greenstone bead

Notes

Citations

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Mixco Viejo

Contents

Mixco Viejo in history: Chinautla Viejo