Miyakoan language

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File:WIKITONGUES- Hiroyuki speaking Miyako.webm
A Miyakoan speaker, recorded in the United States

The Miyakoan language ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Myākufutsu/Myākufutsї {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Sumafutsu/Sїmafutsї, Template:Langx) is a diverse dialect cluster spoken in the Miyako Islands, located southwest of Okinawa. The combined population of the islands is about 52,000 (as of 2011). Miyakoan is a Southern Ryukyuan language, most closely related to Yaeyama. As of 2025, the number of competent native speakers is not definitively known. As a consequence of the Japanese government's Japanese language policy, which has traditionally referred to the language as Template:Nihongo, or simply a dialect of standard Japanese, it is not taught or used in schools. As a result, most people born after 1970 tend to not use the language except in songs and rituals, and the younger generation almost exclusively uses Japanese as their first language. UNESCO classified Miyakoan as a "definitely endangered" language in its Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger in February, 2009.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Endangered Languages Project currently classifies the language as "severely endangered."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Miyakoan is notable among the Japonic languages in that it allows non-nasal syllable-final consonants, something not found in most Japonic languages.

Dialects

The most divergent dialect is Tarama, spoken on Tarama Island, the farthest island away. The other dialects cluster as Ikema–Irabu and Central Miyako. Given the low degree of mutual intelligibility, Tarama language is sometimes considered a distinct language in its own right.Template:Citation needed

An illustrative lexeme is the name of the plant Alocasia. This varies as Central Miyako (Hirara, Ōgami) {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Ikema {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Irabu (Nagahama) {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Tarama {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

A short description of the Aragusuku dialect (spoken in the southeastern area of Miyako Island and not to be confused with the Yaeyama dialect of the same name) was published in 2022 by Wang Danning.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

A descriptive grammar of Kurima dialect was published in 2024 by Alexandra Jarosz.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Phonology

The description here is mostly based on the Ōgami dialect, the Central Miyakoan dialect of the smallest of the Miyako islands, from Pellard (2009).<ref name="Pellard 2009">Template:Harvnb</ref> There is additional description based on the Irabu dialect, the Ikema-Irabu dialect of the second largest of the Irabu islands.<ref name=":0"/>

Central Miyakoan dialects do not have pitch accent; therefore, they are of ikkei type, except for the dialects of Ikema, Karimata, Uechi, and Yonaha, which have at most three types of pitch accent. Tarama distinguishes three types of accent on the phonological word (stem plus clitics), e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}},

Vowels

There are five vowels in Ōgami.

Ōgami vowels
Front Central Back
Close Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link
Mid Template:IPA link
Open Template:IPA link

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} is truly unrounded, unlike the compressed Japanese u. It is centralized after {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is rounded normally, but varies as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} varies from {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Numerous vowel sequences occur, and long vowels are treated as sequences of identical vowels, keeping the inventory at five.

Historical *i and *u centralized and merged to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as *e and *o rose to /i/ and /u/. The blade of the tongue in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is close to the alveolar ridge, and this feature has been inaccurately described as "apical" (it is actually laminal).<ref>Hayato Aoi, in Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages, p. 406</ref> In certain environments {{#invoke:IPA|main}} rises beyond vowel space to syllabic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (especially before another voiced consonant) and, in dialects that have voiced stops, to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}:

*pito > pstu 'person', *kimo > ksmu 'liver', *tabi > tabz 'journey' in Shimazato dialect.

Ōgami vowels other than {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are not subject to devoicing next to unvoiced consonants the way Japanese high vowels are. Sequences of phonetic consonants have been analyzed by Pellard (2009)<ref name="Pellard 2009"/> as being phonemically consonantal as well.

In Irabu there are five main vowels and two rare mid vowels that occur in loanwords and some clitics.<ref name=":0">Template:Harvnb</ref>

Irabu vowels
Front Central Back
Close Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Mid (Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)
Open Template:IPA link

Consonants

In Ōgami there are nine consonants, without a voicing contrast. (Most Miyakoan dialects do distinguish voicing.)

Ōgami consonants
Labial Alveolar Dorsal
Nasal Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Plosive Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Tap Template:IPA link
Fricative Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Approximant Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)

The plosives tend to be somewhat aspirated initially and voiced medially. There are maybe a dozen words with optionally voiced initial consonants, such as babe ~ pape (a sp. of fish) and gakspstu ~ kakspstu 'glutton',<ref>Less likely is 'wolverine'; the French glouton (like the English 'glutton') can both describe people and be a name for the animal, but the Miyakoan word is glossed as being composed of morphemes meaning "hungry ghost" and "person".</ref> but Pellard suggests they may be loans (babe is found in other dialects, and gaks- is a Chinese loan; only a single word gama ~ kama 'grotto, cave' is not an apparent loan).

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be spirantized before {{#invoke:IPA|main}}: kaina 'arm' {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, a꞊ka 'I (nominative)' {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} is {{#invoke:IPA|main}} at the end of a word, and assimilates to succeeding consonants ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) before another consonant. When final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} geminates, it becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; compare tin {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'silver' with tinnu {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'silver (accusative)'. It tends to devoice after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, on the other hand, does not assimilate and appears finally unchanged, as in mku 'right', mta 'earth', and im 'sea'.

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} is labiodental, not bilabial, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} palatalizes to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before the front vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}}: pssi {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'cold'. Some speakers insert an epenthetic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} between {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in what would otherwise be a sequence thereof, as in ansi {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'thus'.

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} is clearly labiodental as well and tends to become a fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when emphasized or when geminated, as in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'calf'. It can be syllabic, as can all sonorants in Ōgami: vv {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'to sell'. Final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} contrasts with the high back vowels: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'snake', {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'stick', {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'fly' are accusative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with the clitic -u.

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} is mainly heard in complementary distribution with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, only occurring before vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

There are 15 to 16 consonants in Irabu, which do have a voicing contrast.

Irabu consonants
Labial Alveolar Velar/
Glottal
Template:Small Template:Small
Stop/
Affricate 		Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Fricative Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)
Template:Small (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link
Nasal Template:IPA link, Template:IPA link Template:IPA link, Template:IPA link
Approximant Template:IPA link, Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link, Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Tap Template:IPA link, Template:IPA link
  • The sequences Template:Angbr are pronounced as [ʃ, tʃ].
  • Sequences Template:Angbr are heard as [ɭː, z̞z].
  • /n/ is pronounced as a velar nasal [ŋ] when preceding /k/.
  • /ʋ/ is heard as [v] within consonant clusters.
  • /n/ can be heard as [ɲ] when preceding /i/ or /j/.
  • Template:Angbr is mostly phonetically pronounced as a less-fricated [z̞].
  • /ɾ/ in word-final position is heard as [ɭ].
  • /z̞/ is heard as voiceless [s̞] when occurring after the voiceless consonant [p].
  • Palatalization [ʲ] occurs when consonants are preceding a palatal glide /j/ or a high-front /i/ (i.e. /mj, kj/; [mʲ, kʲ])
  • Syllabic nasal sounds [m̩, n̩, (ŋ̩)], are heard in word-initial position when preceding consonants.<ref name=":0" />

Phonotactics

Various sequences of consonants occur (mna 'shell', sta 'under', fta 'lid'), and long consonants are bimoraic (sta {{#invoke:IPA|main}} fta {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, pstu {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), so they are analyzed as consonant sequences as well. These can be typologically unusual:

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (sp. small fruit)
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'now'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'you'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'baby'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'grass'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'comb.Template:Gcl' (from ff 'comb')<ref>ff derives historically from fusi, but there is no indication of vowels in the Ōgami word.</ref>
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'vegetable'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'white'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'dust.Template:Gcl' (from ss 'dust')
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'mother'
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'potato.Template:Gcl' (from mm 'potato')
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'day'

Geminate plosives do not occur, apart from a single morpheme, the quotative particle tta.

There are a few words with no voiced sounds at all (compare Nuxálk language § Syllables):

ss 'dust, a nest, to rub'
kss 'breast/milk, hook / to fish, to come'
pss 'day, vulva'
ff 'a comb, to bite, to rain, to close'
kff 'to make'
fks 'to build'
ksks 'month, to listen, to arrive', etc.
sks 'to cut'
psks 'to pull'

The contrast between a voiceless syllable and a voiced vowel between voiceless consonants can be seen in kff puskam {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'I want to make (it)', ff꞊nkɑi {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'to꞊the.comb', and paks꞊nu꞊tu {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'bee꞊Template:Gcl꞊Template:Gcl' (with a devoiced nasal after s). There is a contrast between ff꞊mɑi 'comb꞊Template:Gcl' and ffu꞊mɑi 'shit꞊Template:Gcl'. With tongue twisters, speakers do not insert schwas or other voiced sounds to aid in pronunciation:

kff ff 'the comb that I make'
kff ss 'the nest that I make'
kff kss 'the hook that I make'

The minimal word is either VV, VC, or CC (consisting of a single geminate), as in aa 'millet', ui 'over', is 'rock', ff 'comb'. There are no V or CV words; however, CCV and CVV words are found, as shown above.

Syllabification is difficult to analyze, especially in words such as usnkai (us-nkai) 'cow-Template:Sc' and saiafn (saiaf-n) 'carpenter-Template:Gcl'.

Orthography

Miyakoan Orthography<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
/i/ /Template:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/ /e/ /a/ /o/ /u/ /ja/ /jo/ /ju/ /wa/
/Ø/ い
/i/
[i]		 イ゜
/Template:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[zTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 え
/e/
[e]		 あ
/a/
[a]		 お
/o/
[o]		 う
/u/
[u]		 や
/ja/
[ja]		 よ
/jo/
[jo]		 ゆ
/ju/
[ju]		 わ
/wa/
[wa]
/k/ き
/ki/
[ki]		 キ゜
/kTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[ksTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 け
/ke/
[ke]		 か
/ka/
[ka]		 こ
/ko/
[ko]		 く
/ku/
[ku]		 きゃ
/kja/
[kja]		 きょ
/kjo/
[kjo]		 きゅ
/kju/
[kju]		 くゎ
/kwa/
[kwa]
/g/ ぎ
/gi/
[gi]		 ギ
/gTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[gzTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 げ
/ge/
[ge]		 が
/ga/
[ga]		 ご
/go/
[go]		 ぐ
/gu/
[gu]		 ぎゃ
/gja/
[gja]		 ぎょ
/gjo/
[gjo]
/s/ すぃ
/si/
[ʃi]		 す
/sTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[sTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 さ
/sa/
[sa]		 そ
/so/
[so]		 すぅ
/su/
[su]		 しゃ
/sja/
[ʃa]		 しょ
/sjo/
[ʃo]		 しゅ
/sju/
[ʃu]
/z/ じ
/zi/
[dʒi]		 ず
/zTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[dzTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 ざ
/za/
[dza]		 ぞ
/zo/
[dzo]		 ずぅ
/zu/
[dzu]		 じゃ
/zja/
[dʒa]		 じょ
/zjo/
[dʒo]		 じゅ
/zju/
[dʒu]
/c/ ち
/ci/
[tʃi]		 つ
/cTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[tsTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 つぁ
/ca/
[tsa]		 つゅ
/cu/
[tsu]		 ちゃ
/cja/
[tʃa]		 ちょ
/cjo/
[tʃo]		 ちゅ
/cju/
[tʃu]
/t/ てぃ
/ti/
[ti]		 た
/ta/
[ta]		 と
/to/
[to]		 とぅ
/tu/
[tu]		 てゃ
/tja/
[tja]
/d/ でぃ
/di/
[di]		 だ
/da/
[da]		 ど
/do/
[do]		 どぅ
/du/
[du]		 でゃ
/dja/
[dja]		 でょ
/djo/
[djo]
/n/ に
/ni/
[ni]		 ね
/ne/
[ne]		 な
/na/
[na]		 の
/no/
[no]		 ぬ
/nu/
[nu]		 にゃ
/nja/
[nja]		 にゅ
/nju/
[nju]
/f/ ふぃ
/fi/
[fi]		 ふぁ
/fa/
[fa]		 ふぉ
/fo/
[fo]		 ふ
/fu/
[fu]		 /fja/
[fja]
/v/ ヴぃ
/vi/
[vi]		 ヴぁ
/va/
[va]
/p/ ぴ
/pi/
[pi]		 ピ
/pTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[psTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 ぺ
/pe/
[pe]		 ぱ
/pa/
[pa]		 ぽ
/po/
[po]		 ぷ
/pu/
[pu]		 ぴゃ
/pja/
[pja]		 ぴょ
/pjo/
[pjo]		 ぴゅ
/pju/
[pju]
/b/ び
/bi/
[bi]		 ビ
/bTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[bzTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 べ
/be/
[be]		 ば
/ba/
[ba]		 ぼ
/bo/
[bo]		 ぶ
/bu/
[bu]		 びゃ
/bja/
[bja]		 びょ
/bjo/
[bjo]		 びゅ
/bju/
[bju]
/m/ み
/mi/
[mi]		 ミ゜
/mTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɿ/
[mTemplate:Ifsubst style="color:red">ɨ]		 め
/me/
[me]		 ま
/ma/
[ma]		 も
/mo/
[mo]		 む
/mu/
[mu]		 みゃ
/mja/
[mja]		 みょ
/mjo/
[mjo]		 みゅ
/mju/
[mju]
/r/ <ref>Iitoyo et al. (1984) say that the sound corresponding to this consonant is [r], but according to Nakamoto (1976), this is a plucked sound.</ref> り
/ri/
[ɾi]		 れ
/re/
[ɾe]		 ら
/ra/
[ɾa]		 ろ
/ro/
[ɾo]		 る
/ru/
[ɾu]		 りゃ
/rja/
[ɾja]		 りょ
/rjo/
[ɾjo]
ん
/N/
[n,
ŋ]		 ム
/M/
[m]		 ヴ
/V/
[v]		 ー
/ː/
[ː]		 /Q/
[k,s,z,t,c,f,v,p]

References

Template:Reflist

Template:Incubator

Template:Japonic languages Template:Japanese language Template:Languages of Japan

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