Mount Rinjani
Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox mountain
Mount Rinjani (Template:Langx; Template:Langx) is an active stratovolcano situated in regencial North Lombok of West Nusa Tenggara province on the Indonesian island of Lombok. It reaches an elevation of Template:Convert, making it the second-highest volcano in Indonesia and the highest point in the province of West Nusa Tenggara.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Adjacent to the volcano is a caldera measuring approximately Template:Convert, which contains the crater lake Sagara Anak (Template:Lit Template:In lang) — named for its striking blue coloration reminiscent of the ocean.<ref name=AnakLaut>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The lake lies at an elevation of around Template:Convert above sea level and is estimated to be about Template:Convert deep.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The caldera also features several hot springs.
Mount Rinjani and its crater lake hold significant spiritual importance for the indigenous Sasak people and certain folk religious communities,<ref name=AnakLaut/> serving as sites for various religious ceremonies. In April 2018, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognized the Mount Rinjani Caldera as part of the Global Geoparks Network.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Notably, the volcano's eruption in 1257 is considered one of the most powerful global volcanic events of the last 2,000 years.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Geography
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Lombok is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf. Volcanoes in the area are formed due to the action of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Rinjani is one of at least 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system forming part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines stretching from the Western Hemisphere through Japan and South East Asia.
The islands of Lombok and Sumbawa lie in the central portion of the Sunda Arc. The Sunda Arc is home to some of the world's most dangerous and explosive volcanoes. The eruption of nearby Mount Tambora on Sumbawa is known for the most violent eruption in recorded history on 15 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI.<ref name="Stothers1984">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The highlands are forest clad and mostly undeveloped. The lowlands are highly cultivated. Rice, soybeans, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon, cacao, cloves, cassava, corn, coconuts, copra, bananas and vanilla are the major crops grown in the fertile soils of the island. The slopes are populated by the indigenous Sasak population. There are also some basic tourist related activities established on Rinjani primarily in or about the village of Senaru.
Rinjani volcano on the island of Lombok rises to Template:Convert, second in height among Indonesian volcanoes only to Sumatra's Kerinci volcano. Rinjani has a steep-sided conical profile when viewed from the east, but the western side of the compound volcano is truncated by the 6 x 8.5 km, oval-shaped Segara Anak caldera. The western half of the caldera contains a 230-metre-deep lake whose crescentic form results from growth of the post-caldera cone Barujari at the eastern end of the caldera.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Geologic summary
On the basis of the plate tectonics theory, Rinjani is one of the series of volcanoes built in the Lesser Sunda Islands due to the subduction of Indo-Australian oceanic crust beneath the Lesser Sunda Islands, and it is interpreted that the source of melted magma is about Template:Convert depth.<ref>Hamilton, W.B., 1979, Tectonic Map of the Indonesian region: USGS Map I‑875‑D, 1:5,000,000.</ref><ref>Hamilton, W.B., 1979, Tectonics of the Indonesian region: USGS Prof. Paper 1078, 345 p.+ map.</ref>
The geology and tectonic setting of Lombok (and nearby Sumbawa) are described as being in the central portion of the Sunda Arc.<ref>(qf. Foden and Varne 1981b)</ref> The oldest exposed rocks are Miocene, suggesting that subduction and volcanism began considerably later than in Java and Sumatra to the west, where there are abundant volcanic and intrusive rocks of Late Mesozoic age. The islands are located on the eastern edge of the Sunda shelf, in a zone where crustal thickness is apparently rapidly diminishing, from west to east.<ref>(Curray et al, 1977)</ref>
The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic and continental profiles and the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) appears to lie at about Template:Convert depth.<ref>(Curray et al. 1977)</ref> These factors tend to suggest that there has been limited opportunity for crustal contamination of magmas erupted on the islands of Lombok and Sumbawa. In addition, these islands lie to the west of those parts of the easternmost Sunda and west Banda arcs where collision with the Australian plate is apparently progressing.<ref>(qf. Foden and Varne 1981b).</ref>
The volcano of Rinjani is Template:Convert above the Benioff Zone.<ref>(Hamilton 1979)</ref> There is a marked offset in the line of active volcanoes between the most easterly Sumbawa volcano (Sangeang Api) and the line of active volcanoes in Flores. This suggests that a major transcurrent fault cut across the arc between Sumbawa Island and Flores. This is considered to be a feature representing a major tectonic discontinuity between the east and west Sunda Arcs (the Sumba Fracture).<ref name=hedervariritsema>Hedervari (1978) and Ritsema (1954)</ref> Further, a marked absence of shallow and intermediate earthquake activity in the region to the south of Lombok and Sumbawa is a feature interpreted to represent a marked break in the Sunda Arc Zone.<ref name=hedervariritsema /> Faulting and folding caused strong deformation in the eastern part of Lombok Basin and is characterized by block faulting, shale diapirs and mud volcano.<ref>(Prasetyo 1992). Abbot and Chamalaun (1978)</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Wikibooks:The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands</ref>
Volcanology
The Rinjani caldera-forming eruption is thought to have occurred in the 13th century. Dated to "late spring or summer of 1257," this 1257 Samalas eruption is now considered the likely source of high concentrations of sulfur found in widely dispersed ice core samples and may have been "the most powerful volcanic blast since humans learned to write."<ref>Siegfried, Tom (2012). "Mystery Volcano's Name Revealed Despite Gag Order", Science News, v. 182 no. 1, 14 July 2012, p. 2.</ref><ref name=Witze/> The massive eruption may have triggered an episode of global cooling and failed harvests.<ref name="Amos2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> Before this eruption, the Segara Anak caldera was a volcanic mountain named Samalas, which was higher than Rinjani.
Eruption rate, eruption sites, eruption type and magma composition have changed during the last 10,000 years before the caldera forming eruption.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The eruptions of 1994 and 1995 have presented at Gunung Baru (or 'New Mountain' – approximately Template:Convert above sea level) in the center of this caldera and lava flows from subsequent eruptions have entered the lake. This cone has since been renamed Gunung Barujari (or 'Gunung Baru Jari' in Indonesian).
The first historical eruption occurred in September 1847. The most recent eruption of Mount Rinjani was in May 2010 and the most recent significant eruptions occurred during a spate of activity from 1994 to 1995 which resulted in the further development of Gunung Barujari. Historical eruptions at Rinjani dating back to 1847 have been restricted to Barujari cone and the Rombongan dome (in 1944) and consist of moderate explosive activity and occasional lava flows that have entered Segara Anak lake.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The eruptive history of Rinjani prior to 1847 is not available as the island of Lombok is in a location that remained very remote to the record keeping of the era.
On 3 November 1994, a cold lahar (volcanic mudflow) from the summit area of Rinjani volcano traveled down the Kokok Jenggak River killing thirty people from the village of Aikmel who were caught by surprise when collecting water from the river in the path of the flow.
In connection with the eruption of the cone Gunung Barujari the status for Gunung Rinjani was raised from Normal (VEI Level 1) to 'be vigilant' (VEI Level 2) since 2 May 2009. In May 2010 Gunung Rinjani was placed in the standby status by Center for Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia with a recommendation that there be no activity within a radius of Template:Convert from the eruption at Gunung Barujari.<ref name=2010PusatVulkanologi>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Volcanic composition
In Lombok, Rinjani volcano lies approximately Template:Convert north of the Sunda Trench (also known as Java trench<ref>Sunda Trench (4°30' S 11°10' S 100°00' E 119°00' Accredited by: SCGN (Apr. 1987) The trench was studied in some detail in the 1920s-1930s by Dutch geodesist F.A. Vening Meinesz, who made classic pendulum gravity measurements in a Dutch submarine. Shown as Java Trench in ACUF (Advisory Committee on Undersea Features Gazetteer). see also: http://www.gebco.net/</ref>) and is situated about Template:Convert above the active north dipping Benioff zone.<ref>(Hamilton 1979) cited from The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands-IV. Volcanic Activity and Composition, accessed 2010-05-10</ref> Based on the composition of andesites which have very low Ni concentrations and low Mg/Mg+Fe It is suggested that the Rinjani suite is of mantle origin, but that all the andesites and dacites as well as many of the basalts have probably been modified by fractional crystallization processes.<ref name="Varne 1981">Foden and Varne (1981) cited from The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands-IV. Volcanic Activity and Composition, accessed 2010-05-10</ref> It is concluded that the Rinjani calc-alkaline suite, which in many respects is typical of many suites erupted by circum-pacific volcanoes, probably originated by partial melting of the peridotite mantle-wedge overlying the active Benioff Zone beneath Lombok Island.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Varne 1981"/><ref>Hamilton (1979) cited from The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands-IV. Volcanic Activity and Composition</ref> The Pleistocene-Recent calcalkaline suite from the active volcano, Rinjani is composed of a diverse range of lavas. These include: ankaramite, high-Al basalt, andesite, high-K andesite and dacite. Sr-isotopic and geochemical constraints suggest that this suite was derived from the sub-arc mantle. Geochemical models suggest that fractional crystallization is an important process in the suite's differentiation, although the series: ankaramite-high-Al basalt-andesite-dacite does not represent a continuously evolving spectrum of liquids.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In September 1995 an aviation report was issued concerning an unconfirmed ash cloud from Rinjani. A NOTAM about volcanic activity from Rinjani was issued by the Bali Flight Information Region on the morning of 12 September. An ash cloud was reportedly drifting to the south west with the cloud top around Template:Convert altitude.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
On 3 November 1994, a cold lahar (volcanic mudflow) from the summit area of Rinjani volcano traveled down the Kokok Jenggak River killing thirty people from the village of Aikmel who were caught by surprise when collecting water from the river in the path of the flow. One person remained missing as of 9 November 1994. No damage to the village was reported. Local volcanologists noted that additional lahars could be triggered by heavy rainfall.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
During 4 June 1994 – January 1995 the DVGHM (Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) noted that explosions occurred on Rinjani. Those explosions came from the Barujari volcano.<ref name="awesomenature.tribe.net"/>
Between 3 June 1994 and 21 November 1994 records of Rinjani's eruptive history indicate activity accorded Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) with a rating of 3(?) with the area of activity described as Gunung Barujari. Eruptive characteristics documented for the events of that time are described as, central vent eruption with an explosive eruption, with pyroclastic flow(s), lava flow(s), fatalities and mudflow(s) (lahars).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In May 1994 a glow was noticed on the crater floor of Barujari cone, which at this time had undergone no significant activity since August 1966. A portable seismograph (PS-2) and telemetry seismograph (Teledyne) were put into operation on 27 May and 9 June, respectively. One volcanic earthquake event/day was recorded on 27, 28, 30, and 31 May. After 4 June, however, volcanic tremor with a maximum amplitude of 35 mm was recorded, presumably associated with the upward movement of magma. At 0200 on 3 June 1994, Barujari cone began erupting by sending an ash plume Template:Convert high. One 8 June 1994 press report described emission of "smoldering lava" and "thick smoke," as well as ashfall in nearby villages from an ash cloud rising Template:Convert above the summit. Between 3 and 10 June 1994, up to 172 explosions could be heard each day from the Sembalun Lawang volcano observatory (about Template:Convert NE). During this period, seismic data indicated a dramatic increase in the number of explosions per day, from 68 to 18,720. Eruptions were continuous at least through 19 June 1994, with maximum ash plume heights of Template:Convert on 9–11 June 1994.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Between 28 March 1966 and 8 August 1966 records of Rinjani's eruptive history indicate activity accorded a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) rating of 1. Lava volume of Template:Convert and a tephra volume of Template:Convert was recorded. The area of activity described was the east side of Barujari at Template:Convert. Eruptive characteristics were documented as a central vent eruption, explosive eruption and lava flow(s).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In December 1944, Rinjani appears to have had a significant event. Between 25 December 1944 and 1(?) January 1945 eruptive activity is rated 2 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) The event has been listed in the historical records of the Global Volcanism Program indicating a lava volume: of Template:Convert occurring in an area of activity on the north west flank of Barujari (Rombongan). The eruptive characteristics are described a central vent eruption on the flank (excentric) vent, a crater lake eruption, explosive eruption, lava flow(s) and a lava dome extrusion with associated damage to land, property.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
On 27 September 2004 a DVGHM (Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) report noted the decision to increase Rinjani's hazard status to Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Alert Level 2 (Yellow). During the last third of 2004, the number of volcanic and tectonic earthquakes had increased. Their increase followed a rise in the number of tectonic earthquakes that began 18 August 2004. Tremor registered on 23, 24, 25, and 26 September 2004. Tremor amplitudes ranged between 12 and 13.5 mm, and the duration of the tremor stood between 94 and 290 seconds.<ref name="awesomenature.tribe.net">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
At 05:30 on 1 October 2004 Rinjani erupted. The eruption caused authorities to immediately raise the hazard status to Alert Level 3 (Orange). Details regarding the initial 1 October 2004 eruption are indistinct. During 2–5 October 2004 explosions sent ash columns Template:Convert above the summit. Gray, thick ash columns drifted to the north and detonation sounds accompanied every explosion. Successive explosions occurred at intervals of 5 to 160 minutes. Explosions vented on the north eastern slope of Barujari volcano. Some material also vented from Barujari's peak and fell down around its edifice. A press report in the Jakarta Post indicated that evacuations were not considered necessary.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):2 rating was issued for the activity between 1 May 2004 through to (on or after) 5 October 2004.<ref name="Global Vulcanism Program"/>
Activity since 2009
2009
On 27 April 2009 Gunung Barujari became active, with activity continuing through to May 2009. The mountain was closed at that time as the eruptions intensified with plumes of smoke and ash as high as Template:Convert.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):2 rating was issued for the activity between 2 May 2009 and 20 December 2009. The activity during this period was described as having the characteristics of central vent eruption, flank (excentric) vent, explosive eruption and lava flow(s).<ref name="Global Vulcanism Program">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
2010
Rinjani erupted three times on 22 May 2010 with activity continuing until early on 23 May. According to the volcano's official monitoring agency, ash from Mount Rinjani was reported as rising up to two kilometers into the atmosphere and damaged crops. The volcano did not threaten villagers at that time. Lava flowed into the caldera lake, pushing its temperature up from Template:Convert, while smoke spread Template:Convert.<ref name="Volcano erupts in Indonesia">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In February 2010 observers at the Gunung Rinjani Observation Post located Template:Convert northeast of G. Rinjani saw one whitish-colored plume that rose Template:Convert from the volcano. Dense whitish plumes (and possibly brown) rose Template:Convert in March 2010 on 26 occasions and as high as Template:Convert in April 2010 on 41 occasions. Plumes seen on 1 and 2 May 2010 were "chocolate" in color and rose a maximum height of Template:Convert. From February 2010 through April 2010 seismicity decreased, although the maximum amplitude of earthquakes increased. CVGHM (Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) also noted that ash eruptions and ejected incandescent material fell within Rinjani caldera, but some ash was blown out of the caldera.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The activity in early 2010 centred about Gunung Barujari, a post-caldera cone that lies within the Rinjani's caldera lake of Segara Anak. The Volcanological Survey of Indonesia reported on 1 May 2010, that a column of smoke was observed rising from G. Rinjani "issuing eruptions 1300–1600 metres tall with thick brown color and strong pressure". Their report Evaluasi Kegiatan G. Rinjani of 4 May also stated that on 1 May 2010 at 10:00 four events of explosive earthquake were recorded with a maximum amplitude of 6–53 mm and 110 seconds long earthquake, earthquake tremor events with a maximum amplitude of 1 mm and 55 second long duration, 15 Local Tectonic earthquake events and two events of tectonic earthquake.
The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Alert Level was raised to 2 (on a scale of 1–4) on 2 May 2010.<ref name="2010PusatVulkanologi" /> Level 1 is "Normal" and Level 2 is "Advisory" with an Aviation Alert color of Yellow-Advisory.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Based on analysis of satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC (Volcanic Ash Advisory Center)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> reported that on 5 May a possible ash plume from Rinjani rose to an altitude of Template:Convert a.s.l. and drifted Template:Convert NW. The plume was not seen in imagery about six hours later. CVGHM (Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) advised the VAAC that intermittent activity could produce ash plumes to Template:Convert above the caldera.<ref name="volcano.si.edu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
2015
On 31 October 2015, Mount Rinjani started erupting again.<ref name="31Oct15Eruption">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
2018
On 29 July 2018 a magnitude 6.4 earthquake caused landslides on the north portion of Mount Rinjani.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
August 2018
On 5 August 2018, a second earthquake struck Lombok, causing more landslides and small tsunamis due to its proximity to the northern coast. The area around Rinjani was evacuated due to concerns of a possible eruption, but no increase in activity was detected at Rinjani or the nearby volcano Mount Agung on Bali.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Monitoring program
Gunung Rinjani Observation Post Rinjani Sembalun is located in the village of Lawang, Sub Sembalun 2.5 km (4000 feet) northeast of G. Rinjani) in the Regency of East Lombok. Observers at this post monitor G.Rinjani, G.Barujari/G.Tenga within the Segara Anak Caldera.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Rinjani National Park
The volcano and the caldera are protected by the Gunung Rinjani National Park established in 1997. Tourism is increasingly popular<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with trekkers able to visit the rim, make their way into the caldera or even to make the more arduous climb to the highest point;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> fatalities, however, are not unheard of.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In July 2009 the summit route was closed due to volcanic activity at that time and subsequently reopened when the activity decreased. During early 2010 up to and including May 2010 access to Rinjani was at times again restricted due to volcanic activity.
The park is popular for mountain climbs and trekking and represents an important nature reserve and water catchment area. The park is officially Template:Convert within the park boundaries and includes a further Template:Convert of protected forest outside. The mountain and its satellites form the Mount Rinjani National Park (Taman Nasional Gunung Rinjani). Mount Rinjani has obtained the World Legacy Award from Conservation International and Traveller (2004), and was a finalist for Tourism for Tomorrow Awards (2005 and 2008) from the World Travel Tourism Council (WTTC).
The Rinjani scops owl was found in 2003 and after 10 years of research was recognized as a new endemic species (specimens had been collected in the 19th century but had been identified as being Mollucas scops owls).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Eruption history of Rinjani
| VEI | Date Template:Nowrap | Lava Volume | Tephra Volume | Area of Activity | Eruptive Characteristics | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
Refs | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ? | 2016 September 27 14:45 WITA | Gunung Barujari | Ash ejected to atmosphere<ref name='27sept2016erupt_1'>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name='27sept2016erupt_2'>
{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}} </ref><ref name='27sept2016erupt_3'> {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}} </ref> || || <ref name='27sept2016erupt_1'/><ref name='27sept2016erupt_2'/><ref name='27sept2016erupt_3'/> | ||||
| ? | 2015 October 31 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Ash plumes Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||||
| 2 | 2010 February Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Ash plumes Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap possible ash plume rose to an altitude of 5.5 km Template:Nowrap |
SI / USGS Weekly Volcanic Template:Nowrap Report-Rinjani<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> ABC Asia Pacific News Service 24 may2010<ref name="Volcano erupts in Indonesia"/> | |||
| 2 | 2009 May 2 Template:Nowrap |
NE flank of Template:Nowrap | Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 2004 Oct 1 Template:Nowrap |
Summit and NE flank of Template:Nowrap | Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 0 | 1995 Sep 12 | Explosive eruption (?) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani Template:Nowrap | ||||||
| 3? | 1994 Jun 3 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:NowrapTemplate:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani Template:Nowrap | |||||
| 1 | 1966 Mar 28 Template:Nowrap |
6.6×Template:Nowrap | 2×Template:Nowrap | Eastern side of Template:Nowrap | Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
| 0? | 1965 Sep Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Flank (excentric) vent eruption Template:Nowrap |
Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 0? | 1953 Oct 15 Template:Nowrap (end) Unknown |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani Template:Nowrap | |||||
| 0? | 1949 1950 Template:Nowrap |
NW flank of Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 1944 Dec 25 Template:Nowrap |
7.4×Template:Nowrap | NW flank of Barujari (Rombongan) | Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | ||||
| 0 | 1941 May 30 Template:Nowrap |
Rinjani summit | Central vent eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani Template:Nowrap | |||||
| 2 | 1915 Nov 4 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari (Segara Munjar) |
Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 1909 Nov 30 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap |
Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 1 | 1906 Apr 29 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 1901 Jun 1 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 1900 Nov 30 1900 Dec 2 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 1884 Aug 8 1884 Aug 10 Template:Nowrap |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 2 | 1847 Sep 10 1847 Sep 12 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Template:Nowrap | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||||
| 7 | 1257 | Gunung Samalas, the former twin peak of Gunung Rinjani, destroyed after the explosion. | Caldera-forming eruption; possible trigger of the Little Ice Age. The largest eruption in the past 2000 years. | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref>||<ref name="Witze">Template:Cite news </ref><ref>Takada et al., 2003; Nasution et al., 2003</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 4 | 2,550 ± 50 B.P. | 0.4 km3 | Producing the Rinjani Pumice and a sub-plinian pumice fall deposit | 14C |
Incidents
From May 2007 to the present, Mount Rinjani has seen numerous climber tragedies.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In March 2007, seven people died of exposure after illegally scaling the volcano during a ban. On June 9, 2014, a 53‑year‑old Australian climber collapsed and died from a sudden asthma attack just Template:Convert inside the park. Days later, in May 8–10, 2016, 26‑year‑old Indonesian Ike Suseta Adelia drowned in Segara Anak crater lake; heavy rain and steep shores delayed her recovery. On November 10, 2016, a 24-year-old Malaysian national Ng Yin Teck fell near Aiq Kalak spring after ignoring route warnings.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
During the July 2018 Lombok earthquake, multiple climbers and guides were killed by landslides triggered on Rinjani's slopes. A particularly harrowing case occurred on September 29, 2024, when climbers near the summit required search and rescue (SAR) intervention after a serious fall. Shortly after, on October 3–4, 2024, a 34‑year‑old Russian illegally climbing near Post 2 on the Sembalun route fell about Template:Convert, suffering fractured skull and tailbone, and required a five‑hour rescue. In a fatal recurrence, on May 3–4, 2025, 57‑year‑old Malaysian Rennie Abdul Ghani plunged approximately Template:Convert in the Torean/Banyu Urip section; his body was recovered by multi‑agency SAR teams.
Death of Juliana Marins
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Juliana Marins, a 26‑year‑old Brazilian publicist and solo traveler from Niterói, was trekking with a group on Mount Rinjani when she slipped from the trail during a night hike on June 20, 2025. She reportedly asked her guide to stop due to exhaustion and took a break alone; about an hour later, she lost her footing and fell into a steep ravine, initially sliding some Template:Convert down before coming to rest roughly Template:Convert below the path amid jagged terrain and precarious cliffs. Drone footage from the following morning captured signs that she was alive (moving and calling out for help) but dense fog, freezing nighttime temperatures, unstable footing from landslides, and extreme weather made rescuers unable to reach her quickly. Search teams deployed vertical rescue specialists and prepared helicopter extraction efforts, but operations were repeatedly halted by poor visibility, wind, and the danger of further landslides.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
During the four days she remained stranded, Juliana's family publicly contested reports that she had been provided with food, water, clothing, or shelter, calling out the rescue operation as mishandled, possibly staged, and marred by misinformation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They alleged that local authorities misled them, delayed crucial updates, and even fabricated drone rescue footage. Diplomatic involvement included Brazil's Ministry of Foreign Affairs sending two officials to Jakarta to monitor progress and support the family. On June 24, Indonesian officials confirmed her death after teams accessed the ravine and examined her condition—by then, she had shifted closer, to about Template:Convert down, but was beyond aid. Her body was successfully recovered the next day, following a ground retrieval effort of over five hours that avoided helicopter usage due to ongoing hazards.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The tragedy sparked widespread outrage across Brazil. Juliana's family subsequently called for a formal investigation by Brazilian and Indonesian authorities, seeking accountability for what they view as a botched rescue, lack of transparency, and negligent oversight. The incident also drew solidarity statements from Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See also
References
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External links
- Pages with broken file links
- Geoparks in Indonesia
- Global Geoparks Network members
- Stratovolcanoes of Indonesia
- Volcanoes of the Lesser Sunda Islands
- Volcanic crater lakes
- Landforms of Lombok
- Active volcanoes of Indonesia
- 21st-century volcanic events
- 2010 natural disasters
- 2010 in Indonesia
- Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia
- VEI-7 volcanoes
- Calderas of Indonesia
- Holocene stratovolcanoes
- Drainage basins of Lombok
- Sacred mountains of Indonesia
- Ultra-prominent peaks of Asia