Nationalism and sport

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Nationalism and sport are often intertwined, as sports provide a venue for symbolic competition between nations; sports competition often reflects national conflict, and in fact has often been a tool of diplomacy. The involvement of political goals in sport is seen by some as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake, for the enjoyment of its participants, but this involvement has been true throughout the history of sport.<ref>Grant Jarvie, Sport, culture and society: an introduction (2013).</ref>

It has been found that sporting nationalism is most strongly found in countries with less development and globalization, with higher levels of education correlated with weaker nationalism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Sports diplomacy

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Most sports are contested between national teams, which encourages the use of sporting events for nationalist purposes, whether intentionally or not. The signalling of national solidarity through sport is one of the primary forms of banal nationalism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Several sporting events are a matter of national pride; The Ashes is a matter of national pride between England and Australia. Also in cricket an India versus Pakistan match puts both countries on a virtual standstill as if it were all about national pride during those matches.

The Olympic Games are the premier stage for nationalist competition, and its history reflects the history of political conflict since its inception at the end of the 19th century. The 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin was an illustration, maybe best acknowledged in hindsight, where an ideology was developing which used the event to strengthen its spread through propaganda. The boycott by the United States and politically aligned nations of the 1980 Summer Olympics and the Soviet Union and politically aligned nations of the 1984 Summer Olympics were part of the Cold War conflict.<ref>Christopher R. Hill, "The cold war and the Olympic movement." History Today 49.1 (1999): 19+</ref>

When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sportspeople adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. Many African nations boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, as a result of then New Zealand Prime Minister Rob Muldoon allowing the All Blacks to tour South Africa. The issue would later come to a head during the 1981 Springbok Tour.<ref>Douglas Booth, "Hitting apartheid for six? The politics of the South African sports boycott." Journal of Contemporary History 38.3 (2003): 477-493.</ref>

George Orwell's essay "The Sporting Spirit" examines the effect nationalism plays on sport, where Orwell argues that various sporting events trigger violence between groups for the very reason of competition.<ref name="beck">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Nationalistic sports

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In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were clearly carried on with nationalist overtones: for example, for most of the last century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sport, if the person was seen to have played Association football, cricket, rugby or any other game which was of British origin.<ref>Patrick F. McDevitt, "Muscular Catholicism: Nationalism, masculinity and Gaelic team sports, 1884–1916." Gender & History 9.2 (1997): 262-284.</ref><ref>Mike Cronin, "Fighting for Ireland, playing for England? The nationalist history of the Gaelic athletic association and the English influence on Irish sport." International Journal of the History of Sport 15.3 (1998): 36-56.</ref>

The nationalistic Italian fascists also created Volata as their own home-grown alternative to football and rugby. It was intended to be a replacement for the popular games perceived to be of British origin that would be of a more local character, tracing its heritage back to the earlier Italian games of Harpastum and Calcio Fiorentino. However, unlike its Gaelic equivalents, Volata was short-lived and is no longer played.<ref>Making the Rugby World: Race, Gender, Commerce edited by Timothy J L Chandler and John Nauright (Template:ISBN). See especially pages 92-94.[1]</ref>

Clubs as symbols of rival communities

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In Scotland, the Old Firm derby in Glasgow featuring Celtic, historically linked to the city's Catholic community, and Rangers, similarly linked to the city's Protestant community, have also historically seen trends along ethno-political lines.<ref>The final whistle for God’s squad?, The Guardian, 27 February 1999</ref>

The policy of Spanish football team Athletic Bilbao of picking only Basque players is strongly linked to Basque nationalism.<ref>Mayr, Walter. How a Proud Basque Team Is Resisting Globalization. Der Spiegel. April 11, 2008</ref><ref>Behind The Closed Doors Of Basque Country Template:Dead link, Srinwantu Dey, Goalden Times, 18 October 2016</ref> This causes disputes between Athletic Bilbao and other Basque teams due to the Bilbao squad being able to use their economic power to purchase players who play for other important Basque teams who have strong youth ranks, such as CA Osasuna and Real Sociedad. In the same vein, FC Barcelona have since the late 1990s promoted from youth ranks a series of Catalan players such as Xavi and Carles Puyol. Indeed, the club is widely seen as the de facto representative of Catalonia, extending the Autonomous Community's reach to areas it otherwise would not be able to influence. However, their local rivals RCD Espanyol usually field more Catalan players than FC Barcelona and the best Catalan goalscorer in La Liga history Raúl Tamudo came through their youth ranks.

In Yugoslavia, NK Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade were seen as symbols of Croatian and Serbian nationalism, respectively. On 13 May 1990, due to the rise of nationalism in the wake of the breakup of the country, an infamous riot broke out between the clubs' ultras during a league game in Zagreb.

In Canada, the Montreal Canadiens, the world's oldest and most successful professional ice hockey team, has always been a symbol for Francophone Quebeckers in Montreal. The teams has had rivalries in succession with the Anglophone Quebec's Montreal Wanderers and Montreal Maroons, as well as English Canada's Toronto Maple Leafs. As well, from 1975 to 1995 there was a rivalry with the Quebec Nordiques from Quebec City, which took on political overtones, with Canadiens fans being more likely to be Liberals and federalists, and Nordiques fans more likely Pequists and sovereigntists.

Indonesian clubs

In Indonesia, one of the most successful clubs in Indonesian football Persipura Jayapura is considered to represent Papuan identity and it could be said to be one of the symbols of the campaign and struggle for Papuan independence.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In several matches, the flag of the Republic of West Papua, which is considered separatist by the Indonesian government, was flown several times.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In fact, one of the players, Edward Junior Wilson, who comes from Liberia, was involved in a fight with the Indonesian police because they thought he was flying the West Papua flag. This happened in the deciding match 2016 Indonesia Soccer Championship A at Mandala Stadium, Jayapura on 18 December 2016. At that time, Persipura, who managed to become champion after beating PSM Makassar 4–2, celebrated their victory after the match. Edward also raised the national flag of Liberia; however, because it was raining at the time, the police mistook the flag he was flying and there was a flag-pulling action with him. After the incident, the police revealed the misunderstanding that had occurred. This incident also sparked a riot between fans and police at the stadium.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

For some Acehnese, Persiraja Banda Aceh is also considered to represent their Acehnese identity and the Free Aceh Movement.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In other cases, Persib Bandung is considered to represent the identity of Sundanese and West Java, especially the Priangan area and by some people it has been considered as their Sundanese culture.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> By critical people, Persib is analogous to a symbol of resistance to Indonesian centrism which focuses on Jakarta (this is also related to its rivalry with Persija Jakarta).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Persib is also considered "the national team of Bandung people", in fact the level of attendance at the stadium for Persib is higher than for the Indonesia national team when they play in Bandung.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Low audience attendance for the Indonesian national team in Bandung this is also the background by sweeping actions and abuse carried out by rival supporters, The Jakmania against Bobotoh (the name for Persib supporters) when the Indonesian national team played in Jakarta, one of them was the attack on the capo of the Indonesian national team, who was also a Bobotoh on 28 October 2018 at Gelora Bung Karno Main Stadium by 30 to 50 The Jakmania members.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2022, a video showed the removal of a banner supporting the Indonesian national team at Sidolig Stadium in Bandung. In the video, the man who carried out the takedown said to the video viewer in Sundanese and English "Eweuh timnas, this is Persib!" ("There is no national team, this is Persib!"). This incident occurred during Indonesian national team training at the stadium.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

By country

Canada

Having been part of the British Empire, Canadians initially attempted to maintain sporting relations with the Anglo-Saxon world. However, over time they became more attracted to North American sports, which they considered less exclusionary, and they pursued a greater autonomy through sporting nationalism after World War I.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ice hockey, as the biggest sport in Canada, plays a significant role in unifying the nation. However, Professor Bruce Kidd argues that there is a cultural ambiguity to the way that Canadian nationalism is expressed through the sport, since the National Hockey League, which started in Canada, is primarily supported by the American market.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The increasing Americanization of Canadian sport, visible since the 1960s, has been resisted in various ways, such as by the government restricting American involvement in the Canadian Football League.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Entering the 21st century, the government has prioritized funding for high-level performance at the international level over grassroots sport, citing the importance of international victories in nation-building.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Cuba

Template:Main Baseball played a significant role in allowing colonial Cuba to assert its independence and uniqueness relative to Spain.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> After independence, baseball factored into Cuba's relations with the neighboring United States.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

India

British India

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Postcolonial India

In the 1948 Summer Olympics, one year after independence, India's hockey team defeated the British team 4–0 in London's Empire Stadium. Describing his feelings after winning the match, Balbir Singh Sr. later explained: "The Tiranga rose up slowly. With our National Anthem being played, my freedom-fighter father’s words ‘Our Flag, Our Country’ came flooding back. I finally understood what he meant. I felt (I was) rising off the ground alongside the fluttering Tiranga."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

By the 1990s, the colonially introduced sport of cricket became identified with the nation's sporting success and economic growth, with stars like Sachin Tendulkar gaining fame and channeling national aspirations.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In some cases, Indian supporters of Pakistan's cricket team are jailed after India–Pakistan matches.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The ancient physical culture and traditional games of India, such as kabaddi and kho kho, have sometimes been identified as part of a project of Hindu nationalism, as supported by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), to bolster national rejuvenation through physical and cultural strengthening.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

United States

American sporting traditions, many of which were consolidated around the late 19th century, have become an enduring part of symbolizing and expanding the nation's unity.<ref>An Invented Tradition: The Intersection of American Nationalism and Sports McKinley Thompson-Morley. URJCAL: The Undergraduate Research Journal of the College of Arts and Letters, Volume 4: Spring 2018</ref> During the 1860s Civil War, baseball became the national pastime and helped to reunify the country in the war's aftermath.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1910, the ceremonial first pitch by the President was initiated, furthering baseball's national role.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Sports like baseball as well as supporting ideologies such as Muscular Christianity also played a role in defining and shaping the imperial encounter with the world, which was accompanied by sentiments of American exceptionalism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Since a surge of patriotism bolstered by the World Wars, the national anthem is now always played before games.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> From the late 20th century onward, the National Football League (NFL) and its violent, military-associated characteristics have played a significant role in shaping the American identity,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> with the game's disproportionate involvement of African American athletes contributing to feelings of equal opportunity and interracial unity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Esports

There has been growing research on esports as a way of performing national identity and ethnicity, as well as how they act as a form of banal nationalism.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> In China, there has been growing support for esports in the context of cybernationalism,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> while Australia's traditional linkage of its sporting culture and national identity has translated to some extent into the esports world.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

References

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External links

Nationalism, Competition, and Diplomacy: Asia at the 2012 London Olympics, Interview with Victor Cha (July 24, 2012).
Nagy, Peter Tibor 'To the history of sport politics and physical education in Hungary between the world wars 1920-1944', John Wesley College, Budapest.
The Sporting Spirit, George Orwell (December 14, 1945).

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Nationalism and sport

Contents

Sports diplomacy

Nationalistic sports