Nikolai Yezhov

Nikolai Ivanovich Yezhov (Template:Lang-rus; 1 May 1895 – 4 February 1940), also spelt Ezhov, was a Soviet secret police official under Joseph Stalin who was head of the NKVD from 1936 to 1938, at the height of the Great Purge. Yezhov organized mass arrests, torture, and executions during the Great Purge, but he fell out of favour with Stalin and was arrested, subsequently admitting in a confession to a range of anti-Soviet activity including "unfounded arrests" during the Purge. He was executed in 1940 along with others who were blamed for the Purge.

Early life and career

Yezhov was born either in Saint Petersburg, according to his official Soviet biography, or in southwest Lithuania (probably Veiveriai, Marijampolė or Kaunas). Although Yezhov claimed to be born in Saint Petersburg, hoping to "portray (himself) in the guise of a deeply-rooted proletarian", he confessed when interrogated that his father Ivan YezhovTemplate:Sfn came from a well-off Russian peasant family<ref name="auto">Template:Cite web</ref> from the village of Volkhonshino. He worked as a musician, railroad switchman, forest warden, head of a brothel, and as a housepainting contractor employing a couple of hired workers.<ref>Stephen Kotkin, Waiting for Hitler, P. 224 "Little Blackberry"</ref> His mother Anna Antonovna Yezhova was Lithuanian.Template:Sfn Despite writing in his official biographical forms that he knew Lithuanian and Polish, he denied this in his later interrogations.<ref name="auto"/>

He completed only his elementary education. From 1909 to 1915, he worked as a tailor's assistant and factory worker. From 1915 until 1917, Yezhov served in the Imperial Russian Army. He joined the Bolsheviks on 5 May 1917, in Vitebsk, six months before the October Revolution. During the Russian Civil War (1917–1922), he fought in the Red Army. After February 1922, he worked in the political system, mostly as a secretary of various regional committees of the Communist Party. In 1927, he was transferred to the Accounting and Distribution Department of the Party where he worked as an instructor and acting head of the department. From 1929 to 1930, he was the Deputy People's Commissar for Agriculture. In November 1930, he was appointed head of several departments of the Communist Party: the departments of special affairs, personnel, and industry. In 1934, he was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party;<ref name="cyberussr">Template:Cite web</ref> in the next year he became a secretary of the Central Committee. From February 1935 to March 1939, he was also the Chairman of the Central Commission for Party Control.

Nadezhda Mandelstam, who met Yezhov at Sukhum in the early thirties, did not perceive anything ominous in his manner or appearance; her impression of him was that of a "modest and rather agreeable person".<ref>N. Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope (Collins & Harvill Press, 1971), page 322.</ref>

Head of the NKVD

A turning point for Yezhov came with Stalin's response to the 1934 murder of the Bolshevik chief of Leningrad, Sergei Kirov. Stalin used the murder as a pretext for further purges, and he personally chose Yezhov to carry out the task. Yezhov oversaw falsified accusations in the Kirov murder case against opposition leaders Kamenev, Zinoviev, and their supporters. Yezhov's success in this task led to his further promotion and ultimately to his appointment as head of the NKVD.<ref name="test">Pons, Silvio; Service, Robert (editors) A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism, Princeton University Press 2010.</ref>

He was appointed People's Commissar for Internal Affairs (head of the NKVD) and a member of the Central Committee on 26 September 1936, following the dismissal of Genrikh Yagoda. This appointment did not at first seem to suggest an intensification of the purge: "Unlike Yagoda, Yezhov did not come out of the 'organs', which was considered an advantage".Template:Sfn

Party leadership revocation and executions of those found guilty during the Moscow Trials was not a problem for Yezhov. Seeming to be a devout admirer of Stalin and not a member of the organs of state security, Yezhov was just the man Stalin needed to lead the NKVD and rid the government of potential opponents.<ref name=RefFariaReview>Template:Cite web</ref> Yezhov's first task from Stalin was to personally investigate and conduct prosecution of his long-time Chekist mentor Yagoda, which he did with remorseless zeal. Yezhov ordered the NKVD to sprinkle mercury on the curtains of his office so that the physical evidence could be collected and used to support the charge that Yagoda was a German spy, sent to assassinate Yezhov and Stalin with poison and restore capitalism.Template:Sfn Yezhov later admitted under interrogation on 5 May 1939 that he had fabricated the mercury poisoning to "raise his authority in the eyes of the leadership of the country".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is also claimed that he personally tortured both Yagoda and Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky to extract their confessions.Template:Sfn

In the "Letter of an Old Bolshevik" (1936), written by Boris Nicolaevsky, there is Bukharin's description of Yezhov: Template:Blockquote

The Gulag newspaper, Perekovka ("Reforging"), front page announcing the replacement of Genrikh Yagoda by Nikolai Yezhov

Yagoda was but the first of many to die by Yezhov's orders. Under Yezhov, the Great Purge reached its height during 1937–1938. 50–75% of the members of the Supreme Soviet and officers of the Soviet military were stripped of their positions and imprisoned, exiled to the Gulag in Siberia, or executed. In addition, a much greater number of ordinary Soviet citizens were accused (usually on flimsy or nonexistent evidence) of disloyalty or "wrecking" by local Chekist troikas and similarly punished to fill Stalin and Yezhov's arbitrary quotas for arrests and executions. Yezhov also conducted a thorough purge of the security organs, both NKVD and GRU, removing and executing not only many officials who had been appointed by his predecessors Yagoda and Menzhinsky, but even his own appointees as well. Yezhov admitted that some innocent people were being falsely accused, but he dismissed their lives as being unimportant so long as the purge was successful: Template:Blockquote In 1937 and 1938 alone, at least 1.3 million were arrested and 681,692 were shot for "crimes against the state". The Gulag population swelled by 685,201 under Yezhov, nearly tripling in size in just two years, with at least 140,000 of these prisoners (and likely many more) dying of malnutrition, exhaustion and the elements in the camps (or during transport to them).<ref>Figes, Orlando (2007) The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia Template:ISBN, page 234.</ref>

Fall from power

Yezhov was appointed People's Commissar for Water Transport on 6 April 1938. During the Great Purge, acting on the orders from Stalin, he had accomplished liquidation of Old Bolsheviks and other potentially "disloyal elements" or "fifth columnists" within the Soviet military and government prior to the onset of war with Germany. The defection to Japan of the Far Eastern NKVD chief, Genrikh Lyushkov, on 13 June 1938, rightly worried Yezhov, who had earlier protected Lyushkov from the purges and now feared that he would be blamed for disloyalty.Template:Sfn

Final days

On 22 August 1938, NKVD leader Lavrenty Beria was named as Yezhov's deputy. Beria had managed to survive the Great Purge and the "Yezhovshchina" during the years 1936–1938, even though he had almost become one of its victims. Earlier in 1938, Yezhov had even ordered the arrest of Beria, who was party chief in Georgia. However, Georgian NKVD chief Sergo Goglidze alerted Beria, who immediately flew to Moscow to see Stalin personally. Beria convinced Stalin to spare his life and reminded Stalin how efficiently he had carried out party orders in Georgia and Transcaucasia. Yezhov eventually fell in the struggle for powerTemplate:Why?, and Beria became the new NKVD chief.<ref name=RefFariaBeria>Template:Cite web</ref>

Over the following months, Beria (with Stalin's approval) began to usurp Yezhov's governance of the Commissariat for Internal Affairs. As early as 8 September, Mikhail Frinovsky, Yezhov's first deputy, was relocated from under his command into the Navy. Stalin's penchant for periodically executing and replacing his primary lieutenants was well known to Yezhov, as he had previously been the man most directly responsible for orchestrating such actions.

Well acquainted with typical Stalinist bureaucratic precursors to eventual dismissal and arrest, Yezhov recognized Beria's increasing influence with Stalin as a sign that his downfall was imminent, and he plunged headlong into alcoholism and despair. Already a heavy drinker, in the last weeks of his service, he reportedly was disconsolate, slovenly, and drunk nearly all of his waking hours, rarely bothering to show up to work. As anticipated, Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov, in a report dated 11 November,Template:Citation needed sharply criticised the work and methods of the NKVD during Yezhov's tenure as chief, thus establishing the bureaucratic pretense necessary to remove him from power.

On 14 November, another of Yezhov's protégés, the Ukrainian NKVD chief Aleksandr Uspensky, disappeared after being warned by Yezhov that he was in trouble. Stalin suspected that Yezhov was involved in the disappearance and told Beria, not Yezhov, that Uspensky must be caught (he was arrested on 14 April 1939).Template:Sfn Yezhov had told his wife, Yevgenia, on 18 September that he wanted a divorce, and she had begun writing increasingly despairing letters to Stalin, none of which were answered.Template:Sfn She was particularly vulnerable because of her many lovers, and for months people close to her were being arrested. On 19 November 1938, Yevgenia committed suicide by an overdose of sleeping pills.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

At his own request, Yezhov was officially relieved of his post as the People's Commissar for Internal Affairs on 25 November, succeeded by Beria, who had been in complete control of the NKVD since the departure of Frinovsky on 8 September.Template:Sfn He attended his last Politburo meeting on 29 January 1939.

Stalin was evidently content to ignore Yezhov for several months, finally ordering Beria to denounce him at the annual Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. On 3 March 1939, Yezhov was relieved of all his posts in the Central Committee but retained his post as People's Commissar of Water Transportation. His last working day was 9 April, at which time the "People’s Commissariat was simply abolished by splitting it into two, the People’s Commissariats of the River Fleet and the Sea Fleet, with two new People’s Commissars, Z. A. Shashkov and S. S. Dukel’skii."Template:Sfn

Arrest

On 10 April, Yezhov was arrested and imprisoned at the Sukhanovka prison; the "arrest was painstakingly concealed, not only from the general public but also from most NKVD<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> officers ... It would not do to make a fuss about the arrest of 'the leader’s favourite,' and Stalin had no desire to arouse public interest in NKVD activity and the circumstances of the conduct of the Great Terror."Template:Sfn A letter from Beria, Andreyev and Malenkov to Stalin, dated 29 January 1939, accused the NKVD of allowing "massive, unfounded arrests of completely innocent persons", and stated that the leadership of Yezhov "did not put a stop to this kind of arbitrariness and extremism ... but sometimes itself abetted it."

Yezhov was interrogated by Acting Chief Military Prosecutor Nikolai Afanasiev. In his confession, Yezhov admitted to the standard litany of state crimes necessary to mark him as an "enemy of the people" prior to execution, including "wrecking", official incompetence, theft of government funds, and treasonous collaboration with German spies and saboteurs. Apart from these political crimes, he was also accused of and confessed to a humiliating history of sexual promiscuity, including homosexuality, rumors that were later deemed true by some post-Soviet examinations of the case.Template:Sfn<ref>Kudrinskikh, A. Nikolai Yezhov: Bloody dwarf Moscow, 2006.</ref>

Trial

On 2 February 1940, Yezhov was tried behind closed doors by the Military Collegium, chaired by Soviet judge Vasiliy Ulrikh.Template:Sfn Yezhov, like his predecessor Yagoda, maintained to the end his love for Stalin. Yezhov denied being a spy, a terrorist, or a conspirator, stating that he preferred "death to telling lies". He maintained that his previous confession had been obtained under torture, admitted that he had purged 14,000 of his fellow Chekists, but said that he was surrounded by "enemies of the people".Template:Sfn

Yezhov's determination to assert his innocence was something few of the victims of the Stalinist purges shared. In his final statement at his trial, he defended his record vehemently, though it did not save his life.

After the secret trial, Yezhov was allowed to return to his cell; half an hour later, he was called back and told that he had been condemned to death. On hearing the verdict, Yezhov became faint and began to collapse, but the guards caught him and removed him from the room. "Procurator Afanasiev came to his cell to point out to him that he had the right to apply to the Supreme Soviet for pardon and commutation of the death sentence."Template:Sfn A bewildered Yezhov replied: "Yes, yes, comrade procurator, I want to appeal for pardon. Maybe comrade Stalin will do that."Template:Sfn However, his appeal for clemency was immediately denied, and when he was informed, Yezhov became hysterical and wept. He soon had to be dragged out of the room, struggling with the guards and screaming.<ref>Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him Template:ISBN</ref>

Execution

On 4 February 1940, Yezhov was shot in the basement of a small NKVD station on Varsonofevskii Lane (Varsonofyevskiy pereulok) in Moscow. The basement had a wall made of logs and a sloping floor so that it could be hosed down after executions, and had been built according to Yezhov's own specifications near the Lubyanka. The main NKVD execution chamber in the basement of the Lubyanka was deliberately avoided to ensure total secrecy.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to biographers Marc Jansen and Nikita Petrov, he "must have been executed by the NKVD Commandant",Template:Sfn Vasili Blokhin, with Afanasev and the Deputy Chief of the NKVD's "First Special Department",Template:Sfn Leonid Bashtakov as witnesses. However, Russian author and former GRU officer Viktor Suvorov claimed in his 1984 book Inside Soviet Military Intelligence that there were "grounds for believing that"<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> future KGB chairman Ivan Serov "played a personal part" in Yezhov's death, although he did not elaborate.

Yezhov's body was immediately cremated, and his ashes dumped in a common grave at Moscow's Donskoye Cemetery.Template:Sfn The execution remained a secret, and as late as 1948, an article in Time magazine reported rumours that he was still alive and being held "in an insane asylum".<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

Personal life

File:Yevgenia Ezhova (nee Feigenberg 1904-1938) with child.jpg

Yezhov's wife Yevgenia with their adopted daughter Natalia

Yezhov married Antonina Titova (Template:Langx), a minor Communist Party clerk, in 1917,<ref>Николай Зенькович, Самые секретные родственники, 2005, Template:ISBN, p. 121 Template:Webarchive</ref> but he later divorced her and married Yevgenia Feigenberg (Khayutina-Yezhova), a Soviet publishing worker and Chief Editor of USSR in Construction magazine who was known for her friendship with many Soviet writers and actors.<ref>Unknown roman of Mikhail Sholokov Template:Webarchive, by Aleksei Pavlukov, Ogoniok. Khayutina-Ezhova was a friend and had intimate relationships with several Soviet writers including Mikhail Sholokhov.</ref> Yezhov and Feigenburg had an adopted daughter, Natalia, an orphan from a children's home. After Yevgenia's and Yezhov's deaths in late 1938 and 1940, respectively, Natalia was sent back to a local orphanage and was forced to relinquish the Yezhov surname. Yezhov, knowing that Stalin would usually eliminate the entire family of the condemned, pleaded to spare his daughter's life upon his imminent murder; she survived.<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref> Subsequently, she was known by the name Natalia Khayutina.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Accusation of homosexuality

Yezhov was accused of homosexual acts. When Yezhov was arrested in 1939, he stated during his interrogation that he had many lovers, including Filipp Goloshchyokin, then party functionary in Kazakh ASSR, during the latter half of 1925, and that they had shared an apartment in Kyzylorda.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Legacy

In Russia, Yezhov remains mostly known as the person who was responsible for atrocities of the Great Purge that he conducted on Stalin's orders.<ref>Marc Jansen and Nikita Petrov, Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895-1940 (Hoover Institution Press, 2002: Template:ISBN), p. 210.</ref> Among historians, he also has the nickname "The Vanishing Commissar" because after his execution, his likeness was retouched out of an official press photo; he is among the best-known examples of the Soviet press making someone who had fallen out of favour "disappear".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Yezhov was very short, standing Template:Convert, and that, combined with his perceived sadistic personality, led to his nickname "The Poison Dwarf" or "The Bloody Dwarf".<ref name="Phillips2000">Template:Cite book</ref>

Due to his role in the Great Purge, Yezhov has not been officially rehabilitated by the Soviet and Russian authorities.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Jansen and Petrov, Stalin's Loyal Executioner, p. 190.</ref>

Honors and awards

• Order of Lenin
• Order of the Red Banner (Mongolia)
• Badge of "Honorary Security Officer"

A decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet on 24 January 1941 deprived Yezhov of all state and special awards.

See also

• Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)
• Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union
• Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies
• Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s
• Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941, the second volume in an extensive three-volume biography of Joseph Stalin
• Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization

Notes

Cited works

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External links

• Nikita Petrov, Marc Jansen: Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895-1940 Template:Webarchive (full text in PDF)
• Interrogations of Nikolai Ezhov, former People's Commissar for Internal Affairs
• "The Commissar Vanishes: The falsification of images in Stalin's Russia" at the Index on Censorship website (includes airbrushed images of the Vanishing Commissar)