Opisthoteuthis californiana
Template:Short description Template:Speciesbox Opisthoteuthis californiana, also known as the flapjack octopus<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or flapjack devilfish,<ref name=":2"> New Records and Observations on the Flapjack Devilfish, Opisthoteuthis californiana Berry. (1965). Pacific Science, 19, 427–441.</ref> is a species of umbrella octopus.
Description
O. californiana is one of 14 species in the genus Opisthoteuthis, these species are also collectively known as the flapjack devilfishes (due to the anterior-posterior compression of their bodies, which makes them flatter when laying on the seafloor).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> O. californiana is morphologically very similar to Opisthoteuthis albatrossi, and they may be the same species, but the two have never been critically compared (due to the latter being historically placed in the genus Stauroteuthis).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> If they are conspecific, O. californiana would be a synonym of O. albatrossi (as the latter was described first in 1920, the former in 1949). Another undescribed Opisthoteuthis species may occur in the north-east Pacific, overlapping the distribution of O. californiana. This new species was dubbed 'Opisthoteuthis adorabilisTemplate:' in the media, but due to a lack of a published description, this is not yet a valid binomial name, as it is a nomen nudum.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Flapjack octopuses usually appear pinkish,<ref name="Jorgensen2009">Template:Cite book</ref> possessing a gelatinous body.<ref name="Dodrill2015" /> They have fins above their eyes, similar to those found on some species of squid. Their maximum size is Template:Convert mantle length.<ref name="Jorgensen2009" /> They have eight arms (like any other octopus), but these are joined together by a membrane or "webbing", forming an umbrella-like shape; these webbed arms are spread into a parachute-like shape when maneuvering through dimly lit water.<ref name="Dodrill2015">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Unlike commonly known octopus which live in shallower waters, they are unable to camouflage by changing skin color and texture.<ref name=":3">"Flapjack Octopus". Monterey Bay Aquarium. Retrieved October 23, 2023.</ref> They swim by moving their fins, pulsing their webbed arms, pushing water through their funnel for jet propulsion, or all three at once.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Distribution
O. californiana is distributed in the northern and northeastern Pacific Ocean, ranging in the west from off central Honshū (Japan) and the Sea of Okhotsk, its northernmost range being the Bering Sea, and its eastern range is along the western coast of North America as far south as Eureka Bar, California (the type locality, at Template:Convert depth).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The depth at which the species occurs typically ranges from Template:Convert,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> but more recent records indicate that they may occur down to Template:Convert.<ref name="Jorgensen2009" /> This species lives on the "muddy" seafloor (pelagic sediment ).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
Biology
The stomach contents of eight members of O. californiana were found to contain small benthic/epibenthic crustaceans, including copepods, isopods, mysids, and small shrimp (crangonid or hippolytid). From observations of other Opisthoteuthis species, the extensive arm webbing is possibly used to trap small crustaceans, with the cirri and suckers moving small prey items towards the mouth (a fairly low-energy feeding strategy compared to shallow-water octopus).<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Nigmatullin. (2002). Biology of the cirrate octopod Opisthoteuthis californiana in the north-western part of the Bering Sea. Bulletin of Marine Science, 71(2), 1133–1133.</ref>
Reproduction
Template:See also Opisthoteuthis species (like other cirrate octopuses) use continuous spawning, where the female lays one or two large eggs at a time over several years (rather than a large batch near the end of her lifespan). These eggs have a hard, protective outer shellTemplate:Clarify (unlike the eggs of incirrate octopus) and are not brooded or protected by the mother, with the hatched young undergo direct development (lacking the paralarvae stage of incirrate octopus) and are likely benthic.<ref name=":1" />
Mature O. californiana females carry about 1400–2380 eggs in their ovary, with the individually spawned mature eggs measuring Template:Convert long. Estimations of egg hatching time (using water temperature and egg size) for O. californiana are up to 1.4 years at Template:Convert.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Mating has never been observed in O. californiana; the males lack the hectocotylus of typical octopus, instead having a series of enlarged suckers that presumably have a role in mating or competition.<ref name=":1" /> Males move seasonally, and occur in shallower waters during the summer.Template:Clarify<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Relation to humans
Members of O. californiana from the Monterey Canyon were researched ex situ in 2015 by scientists from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, with several Opisthoteuthis sp. specimens (including a fertile female) that resemble O. californiana (in media these were given the informal name Opisthoteuthis 'adorabilisTemplate:'). Due to the challenges of mimicking their deep sea environment in captivity, some of the octopuses lived only for a few months, but some of the laid eggs incubated for a year in the laboratory.<ref name="cbs">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In the Finding Nemo franchise, one of Nemo's classmates, Pearl, is a flapjack octopus.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Flapjack octopuses appear in Abzû along the sea floor in levels depicing the deep sea.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
