Paiwan language
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Paiwan (Template:Langx,Template:Citation needed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) is a native language of southern Taiwan. It is spoken as a first language by the ethnic Paiwan, a Taiwanese indigenous people, and historically as a second language by most people in southern Taiwan. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is also one of the national languages of Taiwan.<ref name="Indigenous Languages Development Act">Template:Citation</ref>
Dialects
Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.Template:Sfn
- A1 – southern and central
- Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
- Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
- Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
- A2 – central
- Ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
- Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
- B1 – northernmost
- Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
- Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
- B2 – northwestern
- Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
- Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
- B3 – east-central
- Tjariḍik (Charilik)
- B4 – eastern
- Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
- Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)
This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:Template:Full citation needed
Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
Phonology
Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found only in loanwords, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is uncommon) and 4 vowels.Template:Sfn Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.
The four Paiwan vowels are {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is written Template:Angbr in the literature.
In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||||
| Plosive | voiceless | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| voiced | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |||
| Affricate | Template:IPA link | ||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | Template:IPA link | (Template:IPA link) | ||||
| voiced | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |||||
| Trill~ Fricative |
Template:IPA link | ||||||
| Approximant | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |||
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| voiced | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |||
| Affricate | Template:IPA link | |||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | Template:IPA link | (Template:IPA link) | |||||
| voiced | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | |||||
| Approximant | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link Template:IPA link | |||||
Younger speakers tend to pronounce {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere in Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, though it still varies {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Word-initial *k has become {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
Grammar
Pronouns
The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982).Template:Sfn
| Gloss | Equational | Genitive | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
| Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
| Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
| Template:Gcl.Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
| Template:Gcl.Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
| Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
| Template:Gcl | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} |
Function words
Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.Template:Sfn
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, personal plural = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, personal plural = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, personal plural = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
Other words include:
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – be at, in (place)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – if when
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – definite future negative marker
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – definite future marker
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – emphasis, setting apart
Affixed adverbials include:Template:Sfn
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: tomorrow
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: yesterday
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: soon, in a little while (future)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: a little while ago
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: when? (future)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: when? (past)
Interjections include the following:Template:Sfn
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – yes
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – no (not do)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – no, not (not exist)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – oh! (surprise, wonder)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – alas!
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – ouch! (pain)
Verbs
Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.Template:Sfn
- Agent/Actor
- Object/Goal/Patient
- Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
- Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin
The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.Template:Sfn
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (intentional)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (intentional)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (volitionally ambiguous)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (volitionally ambiguous)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (non-intentional)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (non-intentional)
Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.Template:Sfn
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: "certainly," "truly doing"
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: "definitely" (emphatic)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: "still, yet, continuing to"
Affixes
The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982).Template:Sfn
- Prefixes
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: principal, main
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: time/place characterized by something
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: go past, via; having finished
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: come from
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: eat, drink, consume
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: get, obtain
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: to go in the direction of
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: (have) come to be in/at
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: have quality of
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: having reciprocal relationship
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: in some general category
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: number of persons
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be gigantic, super-
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: pretend, claim
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: agent marker (certain verbs)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: every
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: to cause to be/occur
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: emerge, come into view
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: put in/on; do something to
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: have or produce; acquire
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: place where something is put or kept
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: do nothing except ...
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: having to do with
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: do at/during
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: do at/in
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: use, utilize, employ
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: perhaps, most likely is
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: construct, work on/in
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: become/act as; one who acts as
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: do frequently/habitually; have many of
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: carry, transport
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: remove or have removed from oneself
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: past marker
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: similar to, like
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be dissimilar but of same size
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: take along for use
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: most, -est
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be definitely
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: reach/extend as far as
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: furthest, utmost
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: to have just done
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: choose to do at/from
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: containing
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: be/remain at
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: search for
- Infixes
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words
- Suffixes
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: object/goal of action; object focus
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: projected or intended action, referent focus
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time
The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).
- Nouns
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'tiny things'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'things made from plant roots'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'place' (always used with another affix)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'rich'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'vegetation'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'inhabitants'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'name of a tribe'
- Verbs
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'already done'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to complete'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to do something oneself'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to do something to oneself'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to get rid of'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to do something separately'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to experience, to be something'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to cause someone to do something'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to produce, to get something'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to be willing to do something'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to arrive at'
- Adjectives
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'being'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'with the quality of'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'very'
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'more than'
Notes
References
External links
- Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典 Template:In lang – Paiwan search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
- Paiwan teaching and leaning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan Template:Webarchive Template:In lang
- Paiwan translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people Template:Webarchive – published on the website of the presidential office
Template:Sister project Template:Languages of Taiwan Template:Formosan languages Template:Authority control