Pratt & Whitney J58

The Pratt & Whitney J58 (company designation JT11D-20) is an American jet engine that powered the Lockheed A-12, and subsequently the YF-12 and the SR-71 aircraft. It was an afterburning turbojet engine with a unique compressor bleed to the afterburner that gave increased thrust at high speeds. Because of the wide speed range of the aircraft, the engine needed two modes of operation to take it from stationary on the ground to Template:Convert at altitude. It was a conventional afterburning turbojet for take-off and acceleration to Mach 2 and then used permanent compressor bleed<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to the afterburner above Mach 2. The way the engine worked at cruise led it to be described as "acting like a turboramjet".<ref name="Connors2010"/> It has also been described as a turboramjet based on incorrect statements describing the turbomachinery as being completely bypassed.<ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The engine performance that met the mission requirements for the CIA and USAF over many years was later enhanced slightly for NASA experimental work (carrying external payloads on the top of the aircraft), which required more thrust to deal with higher aircraft drag.<ref name=LASRE1998/>

Development

Origins

The J58, company designation JT11, had its origins in the larger JT9 (J91) engine. It was a 3/4 scale JT9 with a mass flow of Template:Convert, down from Template:Convert.<ref name="Connors2010">Template:Cite book</ref> The JT11 was proposed to the US Navy under their designation J58.<ref name="Connors2010"/> It was also proposed for various Navy<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Air Force aircraft, e.g. Convair F-106, North American F-108, Convair B-58C, Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III, and North American A3J Vigilante, but none of these applications followed.<ref name="Connors2010"/>

The J58 began development for the US Navy<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to power the planned<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Martin P6M jet flying boat.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The P6M started out using Allison J71-A-4 engines and then switched to the Pratt & Whitney J75, due to J58 development delays. Upon cancellation of the P6M, it was selected for the Convair Kingfish and for the Lockheed A-12, YF-12A and SR-71. Other sources link its origin to the USAF's requirement for a powerplant for the WS-110A, the future XB-70 Valkyrie.<ref name="Goodall and Miller">Template:Cite book</ref>

Re-design for Mach 3.2

J58 on full afterburner, showing shock diamonds

Analytical calculations of the performance of the original J58 showed three problems at Mach 2.5: "exhaust pressure was equal to the inlet pressure, the compressor was deep in surge, and there was no cool air to the afterburner liner that would therefore melt".<ref name=nevertoldtales>Template:Cite conference</ref>

The first problem was caused by excessive compressor delivery temperatures, which did not allow enough energy to be added in the engine combustor to provide any thrust from the gas generator. All the thrust-producing pressure in the jet-pipe came from ram, as with a ramjet, and none from the gas generator. Fuel for thrust could only be added in the afterburner, which became the only source of engine thrust. The speed at which the gas generator produced no thrust was raised from about Mach 2.5 to about Mach 3 by patented design changes. Beyond that speed, the gas generator would become a drag item with, at Mach 3.2, a pressure ratio of 0.9.<ref name="enginehistory.org">Template:Cite conference</ref> Even minimum afterburner would not balance the drag. The effect was described qualitatively by Lockheed inlet designer David Campbell "..with minimum afterburner the engine would be dragging on the engine mounts at high Mach numbers."<ref name="campbell">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The second problem (the compressor deep in surge) was caused by the compressor trying to operate at too-low a corrected speed in an area of its compressor map known as "off-design". The third problem was caused by the afterburner duct being cooled with too-hot turbine exhaust gas.

Template:US patent<ref name="bleedpatent">Template:Cite patent</ref> describes the changes to the engine that extended the engine's capability to Mach 3.2. They included diverting 20% of the compressor entry air after the 4th compressor stage directly to the afterburner through six external tubes. This allowed the compressor to work properly with adequate surge margin and increased airflow into the compressor. Some of the increased flow left the compressor after the 4th stage as bypass to the afterburner, and some left the last compressor stage through the previously choked area.<ref name="bleedpatent" /> The increased airflow gave more thrust. The inlet guide vanes were modified with trailing-edge flaps to reduce blade flutter and prevent blade fatigue failures. The afterburner was cooled by the bleed air that was Template:Convert cooler than the turbine exhaust gas. Not all the oxygen in the bleed air was available for combustion, as most of the bleed air was directed into the cooling shroud before entering the afterburner cavity for reheating.<ref name="bleedpatent"/> The improved afterburner cooling allowed a higher flame temperature, which gave more thrust.

The engine was completely redesigned, except for the compressor and turbine aerodynamic definitions,<ref name="Connors2010"/> so that it would be reliable running for prolonged periods at unprecedented temperatures, not only inside the engine but also surrounding the casings where the controls, accessories, electrical wiring and fuel and oil tubes were located.

Starting

Two starting methods were used during the life of the A-12, YF-12 and SR-71 aircraft: an AG330 starter cart with two Buick V8 engines driving a common output shaft, or compressed air driving a small starter adapter. The air-start method superseded the cumbersome "Buicks" when better compressed air supplies became available.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Fuel

Any aircraft flying at three times the speed of sound is in a severe thermal environment, both from frictional heating and stagnation ram rise. The fuel was the only heat sink available to the aircraft and after absorbing Template:Convert,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> keeping everything cool enough from the crew to the exhaust nozzle area indicator, it was supplied to the fuel nozzles at Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> To cope with these high temperatures, a new jet fuel called JP-7 with a low vapor pressure had to be developed. A chemical method for igniting the fuel, triethyl borane (TEB), was developed to match its low volatility. TEB spontaneously ignites in contact with air above −5 °C. The engine and afterburner were lit with TEB and the afterburner also had a catalytic igniter that glowed in the hot turbine exhaust.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Each engine carried a nitrogen-pressurized sealed tank with Template:Cvt of TEB, sufficient for at least 16 starts, restarts, or afterburner lights; this number was one of the limiting factors of SR-71 endurance, as after each air refueling the afterburners had to be reignited.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> When the pilot moved the throttle from cut-off to idle position, fuel flowed into the engine, and shortly afterwards an approx. Template:Cvt shot of TEB was injected into the combustion chamber, where it spontaneously ignited and lit the fuel with a green flash. In some conditions, however, the TEB flow was obstructed by coking deposits on the injector nozzle, hindering restart attempts. Refilling the TEB tank was a perilous task; the maintenance crew wore silver fire suits.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Conversely, the JP-7 fueling was so safe that some aircraft maintenance was permitted during filling. The chemical ignition was chosen instead of a conventional igniter for reliability reasons, and to reduce mechanical complexity. The TEB tank is cooled with fuel flowing around it, and contains a disk that ruptures in case of overpressure, allowing TEB and nitrogen to discharge into the afterburner.

One heat source required two-stage reduction. Before entering the fuel heat-sink system, the Environmental Control System (ECS) air leaving the engine compressor at Template:Convert was so hot that ram air at Template:Convert<ref name=LawPeteOverview2>Template:Cite conference</ref> had to be used first. Fuel flowing from the tanks to the engines was used to cool the air conditioning systems, aircraft hydraulic fluid, engine oil, accessory drive system oil, the TEB tank and afterburner nozzle actuator control lines.Template:Sfn

Materials

The development of the J58 involved some of the most challenging metallurgical development problems experienced by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft so far, with components operating at unprecedented temperatures and levels of stress and durability.<ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref><ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref> New manufacturing techniques as well as new alloys improved the mechanical properties, and surface coatings had to be developed to protect components.

Premature cracking of turbine vanes and blades made from conventionally cast (i.e. equiaxed) Mar-M200, the strongest cast nickel-base alloy, was avoided by the development of directionally solidified parts cast in the same material. Directionally solidified Mar-M200 became the strongest cast turbine material to date and was introduced in production engines. Single-crystal turbine blades cast in Mar-M200, giving further improvement of high temperature resistance, would also be developed through testing in J58 engines. Waspaloy was the most widely used alloy in the engine, from critical high-energy rotating compressor discs to components made from sheet. Although used for turbine discs in other engines, it did not have the required properties for J58 turbine discs. Astroloy, the strongest known nickel-base superalloy in the Western world at that time, was used instead. Waspaloy was also used initially for the diffuser case, the part that joins the compressor to the combustor and that contains the highest pressure in the engine. Diffuser case weld cracking led to the introduction of Inconel 718 for this part. The afterburner liner was sprayed with ceramic thermal barrier coating that, together with the cooling air from the compressor, allowed continuous use of the afterburner<ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref> with flame temperatures up to Template:Cvt.<ref name="enginehistory.org"/>

Performance enhancement for NASA

NASA was loaned 2 SR-71 aircraft for research work. One was modified to flight-test a Linear Aerospike rocket engine and was fitted with thrust-enhanced J58 engines.<ref name=LASRE1998>Template:Cite web</ref> Engine thrust was increased by 5% to offset increased aircraft drag. The increased thrust came from a throttle push, or exhaust gas temperature uptrim, of Template:Convert. The increase was limited by the allowable reduction in life of the second-stage turbine blades (the life-limiting component) from 400 to 50 hours. The same thrust-enhancement studies used for this work also looked at an additional 5% thrust from additional afterburner fuel made possible with oxidizer injection (nitrous oxide). The nitrous oxide rate would have been limited by thermal choking of the nozzle.<ref name=Connors1997>Template:Cite web</ref>

Legacy

Template:Asof, the J58 is the only known aircraft engine designed to operate continuously at maximum afterburning at high Mach number cruise.<ref name="campbell"/><ref name="iwm20211103">Template:Cite web</ref> J58 experience was used extensively in the JTF17 engine proposal for a Mach 2.7 SST, due to significant flight time at Mach 2.7 and above. It was also used for subsequent engines developed by Pratt & Whitney, both commercial and military. The next afterburning engine, the TF30 as installed in the F-111, used an airframe-mounted secondary nozzle with free-floating flaps similar to that used on the SR-71.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

J58 emissions were measured as part of the NASA Stratospheric Wake Experiment, which looked at the environmental impact of using afterburning jet engines for supersonic transports. An engine was tested in an altitude chamber at a maximum condition of full afterburning at Mach 3.0 and 19.8 km altitude.<ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref>

Design

Contemporary compressor solutions for Mach 3 flightTemplate:Anchor

Alternative solutions to combat the adverse effects of high inlet temperature on the aerodynamic performance of the compressor were rejected by the Pratt & Whitney patentee, Robert Abernethy.<ref name="bleedpatent" /> One of those solutions was used in a contemporary installation. The GE YJ93/XB-70 used a variable-stator compressor to avoid front-stage stall and rear-stage choking.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Another possible solution, pre-compressor cooling, was used on the MiG-25's R-15 engines. Water/methanol was injected from a spray mast in front of the compressor to lower the intake temperature for short durations at maximum speed.<ref>Air International Magazine, November 1979, p.250</ref> Pre-compressor cooling was also proposed for a Mach 3 reconnaissance Phantom<ref>http://aviationtrivia.blogspot.com.au/2012/07/the-mach-3-phantom.html "Tails Through Time" J P Santiago Wednesday, July 18, 2012 "The Mach 3 Phantom"</ref> and the Mach 3+ F-106 RASCAL project.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Propulsion system

Operation of the air inlet and nozzle showing air flow through the nacelle

The propulsion system consisted of the intake, engine, nacelle or secondary airflow and ejector nozzle (propelling nozzle).<ref name="campbell"/> The propulsive thrust distribution between these components changed with flight speed: at Mach 2.2 inlet 13% – engine 73% – ejector 14%; at Mach 3.0+ inlet 54% – engine 17.6% – ejector 28.4%.<ref name="campbell"/>

Intake

The intake had to supply air to the engine with acceptable pressure loss and distortion. It had to do this in all flight conditions.<ref>Template:Cite patent</ref>

Nacelle airflow and ejector nozzle

The ejector, or secondary, nozzle performed the reverse function of the inlet accelerating the turbine exhaust from about Mach 1.0, as it left the primary nozzle, back up to Mach 3.<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref> Mach 3 exhaust velocity is higher than Mach 3 flight velocity due to the much-higher temperature in the exhaust. The nacelle airflow from the intake controlled the expansion of the hot engine exhaust in the ejector nozzle.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This air flowed around the engine and served also to cool the hot external parts of the engine and to purge any combustible mixtures in the event of a fuel or oil leak in the nacelle.

Variants

JT11-1

Proposed version with 26,000 lbs. thrust in afterburner; Mach 3 dash capability.<ref name="Connors2010"/>

JT11-5A

Proposed version with 32,800 lbs. thrust in afterburner; Mach 3+ capability.<ref name="Connors2010"/>

JT11-7

Proposed version with 32,800 lbs. thrust with afterburner; Mach 4 capability.<ref name="Connors2010"/>

JT11D-20

(J58-P-4) Production version for the SR-71.<ref name="Connors2010"/>

J58-P-2

proposed for a US Navy Mach 2.7 capable fleet defense interceptor, canceled mid-1959.<ref name="Connors2010"/>

J58-P-4

Applications

• Lockheed A-12
• Lockheed M-21
• Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird
• Lockheed YF-12
• North American A3J Vigilante (proposal)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Specifications (JT11D-20)

Front view of a J58 as displayed at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, Cambridgeshire, UK, alongside a Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird

Template:Jetspecs<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book

External links

• Pratt & Whitney J58 engine
• Pratt & Whitney J58
• EngineHistory.org P&W J58 images
• SR-71 Online – J58 Engine Photos
• Template:YouTube