Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

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Template:Short description Template:Refimprove Template:Indo-European topics Proto-Indo-Iranian religion was the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples and includes topics such as the mythology, legendry, folk tales, and folk beliefs of early Indo-Iranian culture. Reconstructed concepts include the universal force *Hṛta- (Sanskrit rta, Avestan asha), the sacred plant and drink *sawHma- (Sanskrit Soma, Avestan Haoma) and gods of social order such as *mitra- (Sanskrit Mitra, Avestan and Old Persian Mithra, Template:Lang) and *bʰaga- (Sanskrit Bhaga, Avestan and Old Persian Baga). Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is an archaic offshoot of Indo-European religion.

Origins and development

Indo-Iranian languages include three subgroups: the Indo-Aryan languages (including the Dardic languages), the Iranian languages (east and west), and the Nuristani languages. From these various and dispersed cultures, a set of common ideas may be reconstructed from which a common, unattested proto-Indo-Iranian source may be deduced.

Relationship to Proto-Indo-European religion

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When Vedic texts were the oldest surviving evidence of early Indo-European-speaking peoples, it was assumed that these texts preserved aspects of Proto-Indo-European culture with particular accuracy. Many ethnologists hoped to unify Indo-Iranian, Celtic, Norse, Greek, Germanic and Roman into a Proto-Indo-European religion. Max Müller believed that Indo-Iranian religion began as sun worship. Georges Dumézil stressed the tripartite social system of Indo-European religion and society. Later scholarship has moved away from considering all these religions near-identical.

Development

Some beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, the word 'daeva,' which appears in the Avesta, also bears a linguistic relationship to the Sanskrit word 'deva,' referring to one of the principal classes of gods, as well as other related words throughout the Indo-European traditions. Indeed, Indra, the greatest of the devas from Vedic literature, is often listed in Zoroastrian texts as one of the greatest of the evil forces, sometimes second only to Angra Mainyu himself.<ref name="mospace.umsystem.edu">Template:Cite web</ref> In the traditional Zoroastrian confession of faith as recorded in the Avesta, the rejection of the daevas is one of the most significant qualifiers for a follower of the tradition, alongside worshipping Ahura Mazda and following the teachings of Zarathustra. Similarly, the parallels between the malevolent Vedic Asuras and benevolent Zoroastrian Ahuras are particularly obvious and striking.Varuna, the most powerful of the Asuras, does not directly correspond to Ahura Mazda but shares several traits in common with him, particularly in terms of his role as king among the lesser gods and arbiter of law and morality among mortals. Even as Ahura Mazda rules by and upholds asha, the cosmic moral order, in the Avesta, so too do Varuna and the Asuras uphold the analogous concept of rta in the Vedas.<ref name="mospace.umsystem.edu"/>

Sometimes certain myths developed in altogether different ways. The Rig-Vedic Sarasvati is linguistically and functionally cognate with Avestan *Haraxvaitī Ārəduuī Sūrā AnāhitāTemplate:Citation needed. In the Rig-Veda (6,61,5–7) she battles a serpent called Vritra, who has hoarded all of the Earth's water. In contrast, in early portions of the Avesta, Iranian *Harahvati is the world-river that flows down from the mythical central Mount Hara. But *Harahvati does no battle — she is blocked by an obstacle (Avestan for obstacle: Template:Lang) placed there by Angra Mainyu.

Contemporary traces

The pre-Islamic religion of the Nuristani people and extant religion of the Kalash people is significantly influenced by the original religion of the Indo-Iranians, infused with accretions developed locally.<ref name=Searle-2013>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Camerapix-1998>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="nuristan.info">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=Pelton1997>Template:Cite book</ref>

Cognate terms

By way of the comparative method, Indo-Iranian philologists, a variety of historical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Indo-Iranian folklore and mythology (reconstructions are indicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed motifs from the Proto-Indo-Iranian period, generally associated with the Sintashta culture (2050–1900 BCE).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The following is a list of cognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of the Rigveda and Avesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (ca. 2nd millennium BCE) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic Iranian branches.

Divine beings

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Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Indo-Aryan Iranian Mitanni Etymology Notes
*Háǰʰiš Ahi Aži – –
*Aryamā́ Skt Aryaman Av. Airiiaman – –
*Bʰagás Skt Bhaga OPers. *Baga<ref name=":37" />Template:Efn – OPers. *Baga is inferred from Bāgayādi, month of the feast *Bagayāda- ('worshiping Baga = Mithra').<ref name=":37" /> The etymology indicates a societal deity that distributes wealth and prosperity.<ref>Thieme, Paul. "Classical Literature". In: India, Pakistan, Ceylon. Edited by W. Norman Brown, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960, p. 75. https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512814866-014</ref><ref>Boyce, Mary (1996). "THE GODS OF PAGAN IRAN". In: A History of Zoroastrianism, The Early Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 57-58. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004294004_003</ref> Slavic bog ('god') and bogátyj ('rich') are generally seen as loanwords from Iranian.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
*Ćarwa<ref name=":8">Template:Harvnb, s.v. śarva-.</ref> Skt Śarva<ref name=":8" /> YAv. Sauruua<ref name=":8" /> – Perhaps related to ToB śer(u)we, ToA śaru 'hunter'.<ref name=":8" /> Probably meaning 'hunter' (cf. Khot. hasirä 'quarry, hunted beast', Oss. suryn 'to chase, hunt', syrd 'wild beast'). An epithet of Rudra or Śiva in Sanskrit. Name of one the daēuua (demons) in Young Avestan.<ref name=":8" />
*Dyauš<ref name=":0">Template:Harvnb, s.v. dyáv-.</ref> Skt Dyáuṣ<ref name=":0" /> OAv. diiaoš<ref name=":0" /> – From PIE *dyēus, the daylight-sky god.<ref name=":0" /> Meaning 'heaven, daylight sky'. Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European sky-god (cf. Hitt. šīuš, Grk Zeus, Lat. Jove)<ref name=":0" /> See Dyēus for further information.
*Hagníš<ref name=":9">Template:Harvnb, s.v. agni-.</ref> Skt Agni<ref name=":9" /> YAv. Dāšt-āɣni<ref name=":9" /> From PIE *h₁n̥gʷnis, the fire as an active force.<ref name=":9" /> Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European fire-god (cf. Lith. Ugnis, Alb. enjte).<ref name=":9" /> See H1n̥gʷnis for further information.
*Hāpam-nápāts<ref name=":10">Template:Harvnb, s.v. nápāt-.</ref> Skt Apā́m nápāt<ref name=":10" /> YAv. apᶏm napāt<ref name=":10" /> – From PIE *h2ep- ('water') and *h2nepot- ('grandson, descendant').<ref name=":10" /> Meaning 'Grandsons of the Waters'.<ref name=":10" /> See Apam Napat for further information.
*Haramati<ref name=":11">Template:Harvnb, s.v. arámati-.</ref> Skt Arámati<ref name=":11" /> Av. Ārmaiti<ref name=":11" /> – No known IE cognate.<ref name=":11" /> Goddess of obedience and piety. Cf. Skt arámanas ('obedient') and Av. ārmaiti ('piety, devotion').<ref name=":11" />
*HatHarwan<ref name=":2">Template:Harvnb, s.v. ártharvan-.</ref> Skt Átharvan<ref name=":2" /> YAv. Āθrauuan<ref name=":2" /> – Perhaps a borrowing from a Central Asian language (cf. ToA atär, ToB etre 'hero').<ref name=":2" /> Name of a primordial priest. The Sanskrit cognate is the name of the primordial priest, while the Young Avestan form designates the first social class (i.e. the priests). Scholars have rendered the stem *HatHar- as a 'religious-magical fluid' or 'magical potency'.<ref name=":2" />
*Hwi(H)waswant<ref name=":6">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vivásvant-.</ref> Skt Vivásvant<ref name=":6" /> YAv. Vīuuanhvant<ref name=":6" /> – From PIE *h2ues- 'dawn'.<ref name=":6" /> Meaning 'morning dawn'. Father of *YamHa (see below). Cf. Skt vaivasvatá and Av. vīuuaŋhuša- ('descending from Vivasvant').<ref name=":6" />
(?) *Wr̥trás<ref name=":7">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vṛtrá-.</ref> Skt Vṛtrá<ref name=":7" /> YAv. Vǝrǝθraɣna<ref name=":7" /> – No known IE cognate.<ref name=":7" /> *wr̥trás means 'defence' (the original meaning may have been 'cover'). Skt Vṛtrá is the name of a demon slain by Indra, often depicted as a cobra. YAv. Vǝrǝθraɣna, meaning 'breaking of defence, victory', is the name of a god. Cf. also Middle Persian Wahrām ('war god, god of victory'). The Arm. god Vahagn is a loanword from Iranian.<ref name=":7" />
*Hušā́s<ref name=":12">Template:Harvnb, s.v. usás-.</ref> Skt Uṣás<ref name=":12" /> OAv. Ušå<ref name=":12" /><ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> – From PIE *h₂éws-ōs, the Dawn-goddess.<ref name=":12" /> Name of the dawn-goddess.<ref name=":12" /> See H₂éwsōs for further information.
*Índras<ref name=":13">Template:Harvnb, s.v. índra-.</ref> Skt Índra<ref name=":13" /> YAv. Indra<ref name=":13" /> Mit. IndaraTemplate:Sfn No known IE cognate.<ref name=":13" /> –
*Krćānu ~ *Krćāni<ref name=":14">Template:Harvnb, s.v. kṛśā́nu-.</ref> Skt Kṛśā́nu<ref name=":14" /> YAv. Kərəsāni<ref name=":14" /> – No known IE cognate.<ref name=":14" /> Divine being associated with the Soma. In Sanskrit, the divine archer that guards the celestial Soma; in Young Avestan, name of a hostile king driven away by Haoma.<ref name=":14" />
*Mánuš Skt ManuTemplate:Sfn Av. *ManūšTemplate:Sfn – From PIE *Manu- ('Man', 'ancestor of humankind'; cf. Germ. Mannus).Template:Sfn Av. *Manūš.čiθra ('image of Manuš') is inferred from Old Persian Manūščihr, the name of a high priest.Template:Sfn
*Mitrás Skt Mitrá Av. Miθra Mit. MitraTemplate:Sfn See Mitra.
Skt Nā́satyā<ref name=":49">Template:Cite web</ref> Av. Nā̊ŋhaiθya<ref name=":49" /> Mit. NašattiyaTemplate:Sfn Probably from PIE *nes- ('save, heal'; cf. Goth. nasjan).<ref name=":49" /> Skt Nā́satyā is another name for the Aśvínā ('horse-possessors'); Nā̊ŋhaiθya is the name of a demon in the Zoroastrian religious system. According to scholar Douglas Frame, "the Iranian singular suggests that in Common Indo-Iranian the twins’ dual name also occurred in the singular to name one twin in opposition to the other".<ref name=":49" /> See Divine Twins.
*Pr̥tHwíH<ref name=":15">Template:Harvnb, s.v. pṛithvī́-.</ref> Skt Pṛth(i)vī́<ref name=":15" /> YAv. ząm pərəθβīm<ref name=":15" /> – From PIE *pleth₂wih₁ 'the broad one'.<ref name=":15" /> Name of the deified earth. The Sanskrit poetic formula kṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth') is identical to YAv. ząm pərəθβīm (id.)<ref name=":15" /> See Dʰéǵʰōm for further information.
*PuHšā́<ref name=":16">Template:Harvnb, s.v. pisán-.</ref> Skt Pisán<ref name=":16" /> – – From PIE *p(e)h2uson (cf. Grk Πάων < *pausōn).<ref name=":16" /> Name of a herding-god, protector of roads, inspector of creatures.<ref name=":16" />
*Sušna<ref name=":17">Template:Harvnb, s.v. śúsna-.</ref> Skt Śúsna<ref name=":17" /> Sh. sāɣ(d)<ref name=":17" /> – From PIE ḱues-.<ref name=":17" /> Name of a malevolent being. Proto-Iranian *sušnā- is inferred from Sh. sāɣ̌(d) ('big snake, dragon').<ref name=":17" />
*Tritá<ref name=":18">Template:Harvnb, s.v. tritá-.</ref> Skt Tritá<ref name=":18" /> YAv. θrita<ref name=":18" /> – From PIE trito 'third'.<ref name=":18" /> Mythical hero; one of the first preparers of the Soma.<ref name=":18" />
Skt Váruṇa Av. *Vouruna(?)<ref name=":48">Template:Cite book</ref> Mit. ArunaTemplate:Sfn The Indo-Iranian ancestry is supported by Mitanni Aruna.Template:Sfn The Avestan *Vouruna is postulated as the form the god would have taken in Iran, perhaps later replaced by Ahura Mazdā or Apam Napat.<ref name=":48" />
*Ućan<ref name=":19">Template:Harvnb, s.v. uśánā-.</ref> Skt Uśánā<ref name=":19" /> YAv. Usan<ref name=":19" /> – Probably a non-IE name based on the same root as *ućig- ('sacrificer').<ref name=":19" /> Name of a sage.<ref name=":19" />
*HwaHyúš and *HwáHatas<ref name=":20">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vā́ta- and vāyú-.</ref> Skt Vāyú and Vā́ta<ref name=":20" /> OAv. Vaiiu and Vāta<ref name=":20" /> – From PIE *h2ueh1iu and *h2ueh1nto.<ref name=":20" /> Gods of winds.<ref name=":20" />
*YámHas<ref name=":21">Template:Harvnb, s.v. yamá</ref> Skt Yamá<ref name=":21" /> OAv. yə̃ma-<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref>
YAv. Yima<ref name=":21" /> 		– From PIE *imH-o 'twin'.<ref name=":21" /> Meaning 'twin'; inherited from Proto-Indo-European (cf. Old Norse Ymir, the primeval giant). In Indo-Iranian, name of the mythical primeval man, first presser of the Soma, and son of the god *Hui(H)uasuant .<ref name=":21" /> Cognate to the Indic goddess Yamuna, a deified river. See Indo-European cosmogony for further information.

Locations

Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*Háćmā<ref name=":463">Template:Harvnb, s.v. áśman-.</ref> Skt áśman<ref name=":463" /> YAv. asman<ref name=":463" /> From PIE *h₂éḱmōn, 'stone, stone-made weapon; heavenly vault of stone'.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Skt áśman means 'stone, rock, sling-stone, thunderbolt', YAv. asman 'stone, sling-stone, heaven'.<ref name=":463" /> The original PIE meaning appears to have been 'stone(-made weapon)' > 'heavenly vault of stone' (cf. Grk ákmōn 'anvil, meteoric stone, thunderbolt, heaven', Goth. himins 'heaven', Lith. akmuõ 'stone').Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn See Perkwunos (Heavenly vault of stone) for further information.
*SáraswatiH / saras-u̯at-iH-<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Skt sárasvatī YAv. haraxᵛatī
OPers. Harauvati<ref name="Iranicaarticle">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> 		From PIE *séles 'marsh'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The name refers to a river (Sarasvati River in Sanskrit; or Arachosia). Also the name of a river goddess, Saraswati.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Entities

Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Meaning Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*daywás<ref name=":22">Template:Harvnb, s.v. devá-.</ref> god, deity Skt devá<ref name=":22" /> OAv. daēuua<ref name=":22" /><ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> From PIE *deywós 'celestial > god'.<ref name=":22" /> The Iranian word is at the origin of the div, a creature of Persian mythology, later spread to Turkic and Islamic mythologies.<ref>Čačava, Msia. "Dev" [Div]. In: Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online, edited by Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Heidrun Alzheimer, Hermann Bausinger, Wolfgang Brückner, Daniel Drascek, Helge Gerndt, Ines Köhler-Zülch, Klaus Roth and Hans-Jörg Uther. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016 [1981]. p. 569. https://www-degruyter-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/database/EMO/entry/emo.3.099/html. Accessed 2023-01-16.</ref>
*daywiH<ref name=":23">Template:Harvnb, s.v. devī́-.</ref> goddess Skt devī́<ref name=":23" /> YAv. daēuuī<ref name=":23" /> From PIE *deywih2 'goddess'.<ref name=":23" />
*g(h)andh(a)rwas- ~ g(h)andh(a)rbhas-<ref name=":24">Template:Harvnb, s.v. gandharvá-.</ref> Skt gandharvá<ref name=":24" /> YAv. gandərəba<ref name=":24" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":24" /> Group of mythical beings.
*Hasuras<ref name=":25">Template:Harvnb, s.v. ásura-.</ref> god, lord Skt ásura<ref name=":25" /> Av. ahura<ref name=":25" /> From PIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth').<ref name=":25" /> The singular in the Avesta refers to Ahura Mazda.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> According to Asko Parpola and Václav Blažek, the word has been borrowed into Finno-Ugric/Uralic languages as *asera- (Parpola) or *asɤrɜ- (Blazek), both meaning 'lord, prince, leader'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Other

Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Meaning Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*bhišáj<ref name=":26">Template:Harvnb, s.v. bhišáj-.</ref> 'healer' Skt bhišáj-<ref name=":26" /> OAv. biš-<ref name=":26" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":26" />
*dać-<ref name=":27">Template:Harvnb, s.v. dáś-.</ref> 'to offer, worship' Skt dáś-<ref name=":27" /> OAv. dasəma<ref name=":27" /> From PIE *deḱ-.<ref name=":27" />
*diuiHa<ref name=":28">Template:Harvnb, s.v. divyá-.</ref> 'heavenly, divine' Skt divyá<ref name=":28" /> – From PIE *diwyós 'heavenly, divine'.<ref name=":28" />
*gau(H)-<ref name=":3">Template:Harvnb, s.v. gav(i).</ref> 'call, invoke' Skt gav(i)<ref name=":3" /> – From PIE gewh2-.<ref name=":3" /> cf. also Osset. argawyn < *agraw- ('to perform a church service').<ref name=":3" />
*grH-<ref name=":29">Template:Harvnb, s.v. gír-.</ref> 'song of praise, invocation' Skt gír<ref name=":29" /> OAv. gar-<ref name=":29" /> From PIE gwerH-.<ref name=":29" />
*(H)anću<ref name=":1">Template:Harvnb, s.v. amśú-.</ref> 'Soma plant' Skt amśú-<ref name=":1" /> YAv. ᶏsu-<ref name=":1" /> Presumably a loanword.<ref name=":1" />
*HaHpriH<ref name=":30">Template:Harvnb, s.v. āprī́-.</ref> 'wishing, blessing, invocation' Skt āprī́<ref name=":30" /> YAv. āfrī<ref name=":30" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":30" />
*Hiáj<ref name=":37">Template:Harvnb, s.v. yaj-.</ref> 'to worship, sacrifice' Skt yaj<ref name=":37" /> Av. yaz-<ref name=":37" /> From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.<ref name=":37" />
*Hiájata<ref name=":38">Template:Harvnb, s.v. yajatá-.</ref> 'worthy of worship, sacrifice' Skt yajatá<ref name=":38" /> Av. yazata-<ref name=":38" /> From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.<ref name=":38" />
*Hiájna<ref name=":39">Template:Harvnb, s.v. yajñá-.</ref> 'worship, sacrifice' Skt yajna<ref name=":39" /> Av. yasna-<ref name=":39" /> From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.<ref name=":39" />
*Hiša<ref name=":31">Template:Harvnb, s.v. íd-.</ref> 'refreshing libation' Skt ídā<ref name=":31" /> OAv. īžā<ref name=":31" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":31" />
*Hižd-<ref name=":32">Template:Harvnb, s.v. īd-.</ref> 'to invoke, worship'<ref name=":32" /> Skt īd-<ref name=":32" /> OAv. īšas-<ref name=":32" /> From PIE *h2eisd-.<ref name=":32" />
*(H)rši<ref name=":40">Template:Harvnb, s.v. ṛ́si-.</ref> 'seer'<ref name=":40" /> Skt ṛ́si<ref name=":40" /> OAv. ərəšiš<ref name=":40" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":40" />
*Hrta<ref name=":41">Template:Harvnb, s.v. ṛtá-.</ref> 'truth, (world-)order' Skt ṛtá<ref name=":41" /> OAv. aša, arəta<ref name=":41" /> From PIE *h2rtó.<ref name=":41" />
*HrtaHuan<ref name=":42">Template:Harvnb, s.v. ṛtā́van-.</ref> 'belonging to Truth' Skt ṛtā́van<ref name=":42" /> OAv. ašauuan<ref name=":42" /> From PIE *h2rtó.<ref name=":42" />
*j́hau-<ref name=":33">Template:Harvnb, s.v. hav-.</ref> 'pour, sacrifice, offer'<ref name=":33" /> Skt hav<ref name=":33" /> Av. ā-zuiti<ref name=":33" /> From PIE *ǵheu-.<ref name=":33" />
*j́hau-tar<ref name=":34">Template:Harvnb, s.v. hótar-.</ref> 'priest' Skt hótar<ref name=":34" /> Av. zaotar<ref name=":34" /> From PIE *ǵheu-.<ref name=":34" />
*j́hau-traH<ref name=":35">Template:Harvnb, s.v. hótrā-.</ref> 'sacrificial pouring' Skt hótrā<ref name=":35" /> YAv. zaoθrā<ref name=":35" /> From PIE *ǵheu-.<ref name=":35" />
*namas<ref name=":36">Template:Harvnb, s.v. námas-.</ref> 'to worship, honour' Skt námas<ref name=":36" /> Av. nəmah<ref name=":36" /> From PIE *némos.<ref name=":36" />
*sauma<ref name=":4">Template:Harvnb, s.v. sóma-.</ref> 'Soma-plant', a deified drink Skt sóma<ref name=":4" /> YAv. haoma<ref name=":4" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":4" /> Probably referring to ephedra.<ref name=":4" />
*uájra<ref name=":43">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vájra-.</ref> Mythical weapon Skt vájra<ref name=":43" /> YAv. vazra<ref name=":43" /> From PIE *ueh2ǵ-.<ref name=":43" /> Mythical weapon associated with Indra in India and with Mithra in Iran. Cf. Arm. varz ('stick'), a loanword from Iranian.<ref name=":43" />
*uand(H)<ref name=":45">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vandi-.</ref> 'to praise, honour' Skt vandi<ref name=":45" /> YAv. vandaēta<ref name=":45" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":45" />
*ućig<ref name=":5">Template:Harvnb, s.v. uśíj-.</ref> 'sacrificer' Skt uśíj<ref name=":5" /> OAv. usij<ref name=":5" /> Likely a borrowing from a Central Asian language.<ref name=":5" /> Skt uśíj is an epithet of sacrificers and of Agni. OAv. usij designates a 'sacrificer which is hostile towards the Zoroastrian religion'.<ref name=":5" />
*uipra<ref name=":47">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vípra-.</ref> 'exctasic, inspired' Skt vípra<ref name=":47" /> YAv. vifra<ref name=":47" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":47" /> See Viprata for further information.
*urata<ref name=":44">Template:Harvnb, s.v. vratá-.</ref> 'rule, order, religious commandment, observance' Skt vratá<ref name=":44" /> OAv. uruuata<ref name=":44" /> No known IE cognate.<ref name=":44" />

See also

Notes

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References

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Sources

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Further reading

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