Pulcheria

Template:Short description Template:About Template:EngvarB Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox royalty Aelia Pulcheria (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx; 19 January 398 or 399 – 453) was an Eastern Roman empress who advised her brother, the emperor Theodosius II, during his minority and then became wife to emperor Marcian from November 450 to her death in 453.

She was the second (and oldest surviving) child of Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and Empress Aelia Eudoxia. In 414, the fifteen-year old Pulcheria became the guardian of her younger brother Theodosius II<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p. 97</ref> and was also proclaimed Augusta. Through her religious devotion and involvement in the contemporary ecclesiastical scene, Pulcheria had significant, though changing, influence during her brother's reign. After Theodosius II died on 26 July 450, Pulcheria married Marcian on 25 November 450, while simultaneously not violating her vow of virginity. She died three years later, in July 453.

Pulcheria influenced the Christian Church and its theological development by being involved in the Council of Ephesus and guiding the Council of Chalcedon, in which the Church ruled on christological issues. The Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church subsequently recognized her as a saint.

Early life

Pulcheria was born into the Theodosian dynasty, whose Eastern branch in the later Roman Empire ruled from Constantinople. Her parents were the eastern Roman emperor Arcadius and empress Aelia Eudoxia. Pulcheria's older sister, Flaccilla, was born in 397 but probably died young. Her younger siblings were Arcadia (born in 400), the future emperor Theodosius II (born in 401), and Marina (born in 401).<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971">Jones, A.H.M, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.</ref>

Arcadius' reign experienced a conflict between his wife and the Archbishop of Constantinople John Chrysostom.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p.37</ref> Sozomen reports that much of the rivalry was based on a silver statue of Eudoxia set up outside the cathedral of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia, which Chrysostom condemned: "The silver statue of the empress … was placed upon a column of porphyry; and the event was celebrated by loud acclamations, dancing, games, and other manifestations of public rejoicing … John declared that these proceedings reflected dishonor on the [C]hurch."<ref>Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p.391</ref> Also according to Sozomen, Chrysostom had condemned the empress for her grandiose style in his sermons, which enraged her and resulted in Chrysostom's immediate deposition. Later in life, Pulcheria returned the relics of John Chrysostom and installed them for the church, in gratitude for his pious life.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p.184</ref>

Eudoxia died in 404, and Arcadius in 408. They left behind four young children, including Theodosius II, then 7 years of age, who had been his father's nominal co-emperor since 402 and was now sole emperor. The praetorian prefect Anthemius at first led government affairs. The imperial chamberlain Antiochus educated Theodosius, but upon reaching adulthood the emperor dismissed him from office.

Augusta

On 4 July 414, Pulcheria took a vow of virginity and was proclaimed Augusta. From then on until Theodosius' adulthood, Pulcheria began to act as her brother and his government's guardian.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91</ref>

Pulcheria was highly esteemed at court. In the Byzantine Senate a bust of her was erected, along with those of other augusti.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.</ref> Pulcheria was a deo coronata and possessed basileia.<ref name="Holum1989">Template:Cite book</ref>

Vow of virginity

When she took the vow of virginity in 414, her sisters followed her example. This was to deter potential suitors. Sozomen explains that:

She devoted her virginity to God, and instructed her sisters to do likewise. To avoid cause of scandal and opportunities for intrigue, she permitted no man to enter her palace. In confirmation of her resolution she took God, the priests, and all the subjects of the Roman empire as witnesses...<ref>Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855.</ref>

It is possible that Pulcheria may have had another motive to remain unmarried, as she would have had to relinquish her power to a potential husband. In addition, the husbands of Pulcheria and her sisters could have wielded overbearing influence on their young brother, or even posed a threat to him.<ref>Sozomen, The Ecclesiastical History 9.1.3.; Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 93-94</ref>

Increasingly, the imperial palace assumed a monastic tone more so than the previous regime. Sozomen describes the pious ways of Pulcheria and her sisters in his Ecclesiastical History:

They all pursue the same mode of life; they are sedulous in their attendance in the house of prayer, and evince great charity towards strangers and the poor…and pass their days and their nights together in singing the praises of God.<ref>Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p. 410</ref>

Rituals within the imperial palace included chanting and reciting passages of sacred scripture and fasting twice per week.<ref name="holum91">Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91</ref> The sisters relinquished luxurious jewelry and apparel, which most women of the imperial court wore.

Minority of Theodosius

Pulcheria provided many instructions necessary for Theodosius to be a successful emperor when he would come of age.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 42</ref> According to Sozomen, Pulcheria's training of Theodosius included good deportment, manner of speech, horsemanship, and how to don clothes.<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 123</ref> However, as adult, Theodosius was accused by some historians of providing lackluster leadership.<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125</ref>

Philostorgius says she handled imperial rescripts for her brother during his minority.<ref>Philostorgius, Ecclesiastical History, 12.7</ref> Sozomen states that not only did Pulcheria train her brother in the duties and customs of imperial office but governed the state until her brother reached adulthood. This claim is taken seriously by some modern historians,<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 42; Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91.</ref> while other historians argue that it was the collective advisory body, rather than Pulcheria, that directed the government.<ref>Harries, Jill (2013). "Men Without Women: Theodosius' Consistory and the Business of Government". In Kelly, Christopher (ed.) Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–89</ref>

War with Persia

Template:Main Pulcheria's time as Augusta also was marked by war and ongoing conflict with Sassanid Persia. The imperial court called for war against Persia when the Persian king Yazdegerd I executed a Christian bishop who had destroyed a Zoroastrian altar.<ref name="Holum 102">Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 102</ref> Theodosius sent troops into battle, described by Socrates as "ready to do anything for the sake of Christianity."<ref name="Holum 102" /> Though the war was inconclusive, a surviving inscription declares that Theodosius was able to conquer through his sisters' vows of virginity.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. pp. 110–111</ref> Theodosius thus made his sister's virginity a tool of war propaganda, and because of her vow to be faithful only to God, the hand of God would help Roman troops in battle against Persia.

Relationship with Aelia Eudocia

The relationship between Pulcheria and Aelia Eudocia, Theodosius II's wife, was strained. The two women over the years had developed a rivalry, possibly based on their different backgrounds and religious beliefs. Eudocia was originally named Athenais and was born in Athens to a Greek philosopher and professor of rhetoric. According to a later source, when her father died, he left her with little means, only 100 solidi (gold coins).<ref name="Duckett125">Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125.</ref> She visited her aunt in Constantinople out of desperation. On 7 June 421, Theodosius married Athenais, and her name was changed to Eudocia. Opinions differ as to whether Pulcheria really recommended Eudocia to her brother, a claim made by John Malalas.<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 126</ref> The rivalry between the two women was posed by some scholars to have been motivated by Eudocia's envy of Pulcheria's power in court.<ref name="Duckett146">Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146</ref>

Centuries later, Theophanes the Confessor wrote that Eudocia and the chief minister, the eunuch Chrysaphius, convinced Theodosius to rely less on his sister's influence and more on that of his new wife. This caused Pulcheria in the late 440s to leave the imperial palace and live in "Hebdomon, a seaport seven miles from Constantinople."<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146</ref> However, Eudocia had already left Constantinople for Jerusalem, and the chronology of her departure does not support this version of the events.<ref>Elton, H. (25 June 2019). Pulcheria, Roman Augusta, 414–453 CE. Oxford Classical Dictionary</ref>

Wife of Marcian

While hunting on horseback in 450, Theodosius II fell from his horse and injured his spine; he died two days later.<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971"/> What exactly happened in government during the interregnum is unclear.<ref>R.W. Burgess, 'The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic', Byzantinische Zeitschrift 86/87 (1993/1994), 61–65.</ref> It is speculated by some historians that Pulcheria reigned over the empire alone for about one month after the death of Theodosius, which may have primarily consisted of arranging the public funeral of Theodosius,<ref name="Holum208">Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 208</ref> while another theory believes that the government was under tense negotiations between different parties.<ref>R.W. Burgess, 'The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic', Byzantinische Zeitschrift 86/87 (1993/1994), 61–65.</ref> As the deceased emperor lacked surviving male children, Pulcheria could bestow dynastic legitimacy on an outsider by marrying him. She honoured her vow of virginity despite entering a legitimate marriage.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Allying with the prominent general Aspar, she married Marcian, a tribune and close associate of Aspar.<ref>R.W. Burgess, 'The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic', Byzantinische Zeitschrift 86/87 (1993/1994), 47–68.</ref> Marcian's origins were of low status in comparison to those of previous emperors but he was a Roman, which made him eligible for the throne.<ref name="Holum208" /> One condition of the marriage was that Marcian obey and respect Pulcheria's vow of virginity, which he did.<ref name="World History 2002">Women in World History: A biographical encyclopedia. Edited by Anne Commire and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002. Page 840-841</ref> In order for the marriage to not seem scandalous to the Roman state, the church proclaimed that "Christ himself sponsored the union and it therefore should not provoke shock or unjustified suspicions."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 209</ref> Marcian ascended the throne on 25 August 450. After their marriage, Pulcheria and Marcian had Chrysaphius killed.<ref>Marcellinus Comes, Chronicle a. 450; John Malalas, Chronographia 14.32</ref>

Ecclesiastical Policy

Church and Judaism

Pulcheria was influential in ecclesiastical policies. In a letter from Pope Leo I, a contemporary of Pulcheria, he complimented her great piety and despisal of the errors of heretics.<ref>"In it you clearly show how much you love the Catholic faith and how much you despise the errors of heretics." – Pope St. Leo the Great. St. Leo the Great: Letters. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1957. p. 132</ref>

Pulcheria and Theodosius potentially held anti-Jewish sentiments, which may have contributed to laws against Jewish worship in the capital. Before the reign of Theodosius II, synagogues were treated as private property and protected by the imperial government. Theodosius enacted a law that forbade the construction of synagogues and required the destruction of those in existence. Theodosius also ordered the execution of a group of Jews after strife among Christians emerged in Palestine.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 98</ref><ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 188</ref>

Pulcheria was famous for her philanthropy. According to Sozomen, she erected many churches and buildings for the poor in and around Constantinople.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 49</ref> Pulcheria's building projects in Constantinople were so vast that the eleventh region of the city was named the Pulcherianai.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 132</ref> As well as contributing new churches and districts to the city, Pulcheria contributed significantly to the Christian Church by reinstating bishops who were dismissed and returning the remains of others, such as Flavian, as relics of the church.<ref>"…the entire Roman Church is most grateful to you for all the works of your faith, whether having assisted envoys in every way with devoted affection and for having brought back the Catholic bishops who were ejected from their churches by an unjust sentence, or for having brought back with fitting honor to the church he governed so well the remains of Flavian of holy memory, an innocent and Catholic bishop." Pope St. Leo the Great. St. Leo the Great: Letters. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1957. p. 145.</ref>

First Council of Ephesus

The First Council of Ephesus, held in 431 in Theodosius's reign, involved two rival bishops: Nestorius, who was Archbishop of Constantinople, and Cyril, the Patriarch of Alexandria.<ref>Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge, 1993. pp. 22–23</ref> The dispute grew from their disagreement over the nature of Christ.<ref>"The issue was whether, and, if so, how, Christ had two natures; the Monophysites held that he had only a divine nature, while Nestorius, and 'Nestorians' after him, emphasized the human." Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge, 1993. p. 23</ref>

Nestorius advocated diminishing the influence of the doctrine of the "Theotokos", i.e. "Mother of God", in the church. This conflicted with the religious beliefs of Pulcheria, as she was a virgin empress, and a rivalry between them ensued, during which Nestorius launched a smear campaign against her. Nestorius also tried to remove Pulcheria's image and her altar cloth from the altar, against her wishes.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 54</ref> However, Pulcheria and her allies, including Eusebius of Dorylaeum, struck back by launching a campaign against Nestorius. Meanwhile, Cyril had already publicly condemned Nestorius and wrote to the imperial court stating that the doctrine of the "Theotokos" was correct. Theodosius and his advisors decided to hold a council, thereby allowing Nestorius an opportunity to vindicate himself.

However, the Council, teeming with Cyril's allies, condemned Nestorius' position.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 56</ref> Nestorians, who were unable to take part in the previous council, held their own council to denounce Cyril. The emperor first tried to find a middle ground but eventually favored Cyril. The title of "Theotokos" was decreed as orthodox. He also deposed Nestorius and banished him to a monastery in Antioch. Thus, Pulcheria's campaign against Nestorius was successful, but ecclesiastical controversies did not stop there.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. pp. 56–57.</ref>

Second Council of Ephesus

In 449, Christological debates flared up again. Theodosius summoned another council to Ephesus to resolve the disputes. At this council, Pope Leo I was the primary advocate for Pulcheria's claims of the doctrine, and he "…forcefully intervened, sending a Tome, a long letter, to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople, in which he argued for the two natures, but questioned the legality of the recent condemnation of a certain Eutyches for denying them. At this the party of Dioscorus, Cyril's successor in Alexandria was able to overturn the situation, whereupon Leo asked for a second council, calling that [council in] Ephesus the Robber Council."<ref name="Cameron23">Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge, p. 23.</ref>

During this council, Flavian was beaten and died from his injuries. He was later declared a saint and martyr.<ref>Rudge, F.M. "St. Flavian." The Catholic Encyclopedia Template:Webarchive Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909</ref>

Council of Chalcedon

Two years later, Pulcheria and Marcian summoned the Council of Chalcedon, attended by 452 bishops. It condemned the doctrines of both Nestorius and Eutyches, developed the doctrines of Cyril and Pope Leo I into one, and it declared the doctrine of the "Theotokos" orthodox. It also reversed the decision of the second Council of Ephesus and denounced it as 'Robber Council'. According to historian Averil Cameron, the Council of Chalcedon "…developed and clarified the creed of Nicaea, according to which God was Father, Son and Holy Spirit, by further proclaiming that Christ was at all times after the Incarnation fully God and fully human."<ref name="Cameron23" /> Pulcheria and Marcian were both hailed as the "new Constantine" and "new Helena" at the council. From this council grew an irreconcilable gulf between Chalcedonians, those who upheld the council's decision, and Miaphysites, who opposed it.

Pulcheria devoted the last years of her life to the "Theotokos", and had three churches in Constantinople dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary: the Monastery of the Panagia Hodegetria, the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae, and the Chalkoprateia.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 57</ref>

Death and veneration

Pulcheria died in 453, but the specific day is unknown.<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971"/> She probably died in Constantinople. Her death shocked the people of Constantinople, since she had formed a bond with the city's inhabitants.<ref name="Holum226">Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 226.</ref> In her will, she distributed her remaining wealth to the poor.<ref name="Holum226" />

After her death, she was declared a saint by the church, which is today the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.<ref>"She became a saint of the church, both in West and in the East, where centuries later the faithful of Constantinople celebrated her memorial each year on September 10, bearing in mind her piety and virginity, her works of philanthropy and construction and especially her greatest triumph: 'she caused the holy synod to take place at Chalcedon'." Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 227</ref>

In art

File:Elfenbeintafel mit Reliquienprozession, Konstantinopel, 5. Jahrhundert.jpg

The Trier Ivory, representing a procession with royal figures theorized to depict Theodosius II and Pulcheria.

Pulcheria brought many holy relics to churches in Constantinople. The Trier Adventus Ivory, now housed in the treasury of Trier Cathedral, Germany, has been interpreted as depicting the installation of one of these relics. Historian Kenneth Holum describes the Ivory thus: "On the Ivory Theodosius wears distinctive costume and inclines slightly forward, but essentially he remains only part of the cortege and thus of the ceremonial context. The direction of the wagon's movement inexorably toward the scene at the right, toward the diminutive woman clothed in the rich costume of an Augusta … in it she deposited the holy relics."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 107</ref>

However, this interpretation is disputed,<ref name=Wortley>Template:Cite journal</ref> and another opinion is that the ivory shows the later Empress Irene of the eighth century, who sponsored renovation of the church.<ref name=Niewohner>Template:Cite web</ref>

See also

• Icon of the Hodegetria
• List of Byzantine emperors
• List of Roman and Byzantine Empresses
• Monastery of the Panaghia Hodegetria

References

• Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge.
• Chestnut, Glenn F. The First Christian Histories: Eusibius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Evagrius. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. 1986 2nd Ed.
• Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 1972.
• Garland, Lynda. Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. London: Routledge. 1999.
• Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1982.
• Jones, A.H.M; J.R. Martindale; and J. Morris. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1971.
• Pope St. Leo the Great. St. Leo the Great: Letters. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C. New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1957.
• Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855.
• Teetgen, Ada B. The Life and Times of Empress Pulcheria: A.D. 399–A.D. 452. London: Swan Sonnenshein & Co., Lim. 1907.
• Turpin, Joanne. Women in Church History: 20 Stories for 20 Centuries. Cincinnati, OH: St. Anthony Messenger Press. 1986.
• Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge. 1994.
• "Pulcheria", Robert W. Hewsen. Women in World History: a Biographical Encyclopedia. Edited by Anne Commire and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, CN: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002. Vol. 12: O-Q. Pages 839-844

External links

• Santa Pulcheria – Santi e Beati