Samo

Samo (Template:Circa–Template:Circa) was the founder and sole ruler of the first recorded political union of Slavic tribes, known as Samo's Empire ("realm", "kingdom", or "tribal union"), ruling from 623 until his death in 658. Not much is known about his origins. According to Fredegar, Samo was a Frankish merchant from Sens.<ref>Lexikon des Mittelalters. Verlag J.B. Metzler, Vol. 7, cols 1342-1343</ref> According to Conversio Carantanorum, Samo was of Slavic origin.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> One of his origin theories suggests that Samo was a Slav who fled persecution in the Frankish lands and sought refuge in Bohemia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Samo built his career by unifying several Slavic tribes against the robber raiders from the nearby settled Avars and raising a rebellion against Avar rule, showing such bravery and command skills in battle that he was elected "King of the Slavs" (Template:Langx). In 631, Samo successfully defended his realm against the Frankish Kingdom in the three-day Battle of Wogastisburg.

The most well-documented event of Samo's career was his victory over the Frankish royal army under Dagobert I in 631 or 632. Provoked to action by a "violent quarrel in the Pannonian kingdom of the Avars or Huns" during his ninth year (631–32), Dagobert led three armies against the Wends, the largest being his own Austrasian army.<ref>Curta, 109 n102.</ref> The Franks were routed near Wogastisburg (Latin castrum Vogastisburg), an unidentified location meaning "fortress/castle of Vogast." The majority of the besieging armies were slaughtered, while the rest of the troops fled, leaving weapons and other equipment lying on the ground. In the aftermath of the Wendish victory, Samo invaded Frankish Thuringia several times and undertook looting raids there.<ref>Kronika tzv. Fredegara scholastika</ref> The Sorbian prince Dervan abandoned the Franks and "placed himself and his people under Samo's realm".<ref name="Curta331n39">Curta, 331 n39.</ref>

In 641, the rebellious duke of Thuringia, Radulf, sought an alliance with Samo against his sovereign, Sigebert III.<ref name="Curta109">Curta, 109.</ref> Samo also maintained long-distance trade relationships.<ref name="Curta331">Curta, 331.</ref> On his death, however, his title was not inherited by his sons.<ref name="Curta331n39"/> Ultimately, Samo can be credited with forging a Wendish identity by speaking on behalf of the community that recognised his authority.<ref>Curta, 343.</ref>

Empire

Samo's Empire existed between 623/631 AD and 658 in Central Europe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The extent of Samo's power before and after 631 is disputed.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The centre of the union was most likely in Moravia and Nitravia (Nitra); additionally, the union included Czech tribes, Slovak tribes, Sorbian tribes (under Dervan), and other West Slavic tribes along the river Danube (present Lower Austria and Hungary). The polity per se has been called the first Slavic state.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>

It is generally believed that the tribal union included the regions of Moravia, Nitravia (Nitra), Silesia, Bohemia and Lusatia. According to Julius Bartl, the centre of the polity lay "somewhere in the area of southern Moravia, Lower Austria, and western Slovakia (Nitravia)".<ref name="Bartl2002">Template:Cite book</ref> According to J. B. Bury, "the assumption that his kingdom embraced Carantania, the country of the Alpine Slavs, rests only upon the Anonymus de conversione Bagariorum et Carantanorum".<ref name="Bury">Template:Cite book</ref> Archaeological findings indicate that the empire was situated in present-day Moravia, Lower Austria and Slovakia. According to Slovak historian Richard Marsina, it is unlikely that the center of Samo's tribal union was in the whole territory of present-day Slovakia.<ref name="Marsina18">Template:Harvnb</ref> The settlements of the later Moravian and Nitrian principalities (see: Great Moravia) are often identical with those from the time of Samo's Empire.

The core of Samo's state was located north of the Danube, and in the upper Main region.<ref>Kunstmann H. Wo lag das Zentrum von Samos Reich? // Die Welt des Slawen. Halbjahresschrift fűr Slavistik. Bd. XXVI. H. 1 (N. F. V, 1). Műnchen, 1981. S. 67–101; Jakob H. Frűhslavische Keramikfunde in Ostfranken // Ibid. S. 154–169</ref> In some historical sources of the early 9th century, this region is described as "regio Sclavorum" or "terra Slavorum". Large amounts of early medieval Slavic ceramics are also found here. Many Slavic toponyms have also been found in this area, such as Winideheim ("The Hill of the Wends"),<ref>(German) Geschichte Frankenwinheims Template:Webarchive frankenwinheim.de</ref> and Knetzburg (“Prince's Castle”).<ref>(Russian) Валентин Васильевич Седов, СЛАВЯНЕ: Историко-археологическое исследование. М. 2002 // V.V. Sedov, The Slavs, Moscow, 2002</ref><ref>Wolf-Armin Freiherr von Reitzenstein, Lexikon fränkischer Ortsnamen, C.H.Beck, 2013; Knetzgau (altsorbisch) p.122</ref>

Prelude

According to Fredegar, Samo went to the Slavs in Template:Circa 623–624.Template:Sfn The dating has been questioned on the basis that the Wends would have most likely rebelled after the defeat of the Avars at the First Siege of Constantinople in 626.Template:Sfn The Avars first arrived in the Pannonian Basin and subdued the local Slavs in the 560s. Samo may have been one of the merchants who supplied arms to the Slavs for their regular revolts. Whether he became king during a revolt of 623–24 or during the one which inevitably followed the Avar defeat in 626, he definitively took strategic advantage of the latter to solidify his position.Template:Sfn A string of victories over the Avars proved his ability to his subjects and secured his election as Template:Lang (king).Template:Sfn Samo went on to secure his throne by marriage into the major Wendish families, wedding at least twelve women and apparently fathering twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters.Template:Sfn

In 630–631, Valuk, the "duke of the Wends" (Template:Lang) was mentioned.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These Wends referred to the Slavs of the Windic March, which according to some historians was the later March of Carinthia (Carantania) in present Slovenia and Austria. According to Jan Steinhubel, Valuk allowed Longobards to pass through his territory and attack Samo from south-west. Longobards were allies of Franks (Dagobert I) against Samo. If Valuk allowed Longobards to go through his territory, his principality could have not been part of Samo's empire.

History

The most famous event of Samo's career was his victory over the Frankish royal army under Dagobert I in 631 or 632. Provoked to action by a "violent quarrel in the Pannonian kingdom of the Avars or Huns", Dagobert led three armies against the Wends, the largest being his own Austrasian army.Template:Sfn The Franks were routed near Wogastisburg; the majority of the besieging armies were slaughtered, while the rest of the troops fled, leaving weapons and other equipment lying on the ground. In the aftermath of the Wendish victory, Samo invaded Frankish Thuringia several times and undertook looting raids there.<ref>Kronika tzv. Fredegara scholastika</ref> Dervan, the "duke of the Sorbs" (Template:Lang), initially subordinate to the Franks, joined the Slavic tribal union after Samo defeated Dagobert I.Template:Sfn The Sorbs lived to the east of the Saxon Saale. Dervan participated in the subsequent wars against the Franks, successfully fighting against Frankish Thuringia (631–634), until he was finally defeated by Radulf of Thuringia in 636.

In 641, the rebellious Radulf sought an alliance with Samo against his sovereign, Sigebert III.Template:Sfn According to Chronicle of Fredegar, the Wendish rebellion against Avars took place in 623/624.<ref name=":02">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn This was two years before the Siege of Constantinople by Avars which was supported by Slavs. However, modern researchers reject this version and believe the revolt took place around 626, after Avar failure under the walls of Constantinople which provoked the Slavic revolt, combined with long history of unfriendly Slav-Avar relations.<ref name=":02" />

Rebellion

The revolt is believed to have begun in Moravia. The Slavic rebels were allegedly supported by Franks and Samo was supposedly sent from Francia to ensure Frankish support.Template:Sfn The revolt allegedly also been supported by the Byzantine Empire.Template:Sfn Samo realised that the rebels lacked a strong leadership, which he used as an opportunity to establish his authority and demonstrate his command skills.Template:Sfn Under Samo's leadership, Slavic rebels successfully fought and defeated Avars in multiple engagements. Samo earned respect among the Slavic tribes for his skilled leadership.<ref name=":02" /> Samo's victory over Avars in the final engagement secured the success of the rebellion and establishment of his state on the freed Slavic lands.Template:Sfn

According to Chronicle of Fredegar, "A great number of the Huns [Avars] were killed by Vinidian [Slavic] swords." during the rebellion.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The success of the Slavic uprising caused irrecoverable damage to the Avar Khaganate and Samo was proclaimed Rex Sclavorum ("King of the Slavs") for his outstanding leadership in the uprising.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Despite the desire of Franks to establish their control over the recently freed Slavic lands and Samo's connection to the Frankish lands, Samo refused to bring these lands under Frankish control and retained independence of his newly-established state from both the Avar Khaganate and Francia.Template:Sfn Samo signed a peace agreement with King Dagobert I to ensure stability for his state.<ref name=":03">Template:Cite web</ref> It was believed to have encompassed Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, eastern Austria and later White Serbia.<ref name=":03" />Template:Sfn However, in 630, the Franks invaded Slavic lands after Samo's refusal to turn in Slavs who engaged in rampant banditry against the Frankish merchants. The conflict cumulated at the Battle of Wogastisburg in 631, which ended in Frankish defeat.<ref name=":03" />

Samo also maintained long-distance trade relationships.Template:Sfn On his death, however, his title was not inherited by his sons.Template:Sfn Ultimately, Samo can be credited with forging a Wendish identity by speaking on behalf of the community which recognised his authority.Template:Sfn

Aftermath

The history of the tribal union after Samo's death in 658 or 659 is largely unclear, though it is generally assumed that it ended. Archaeological findings show that the Avars returned to their previous territories (at least to southernmost modern Slovakia) and entered into a symbiosis with the Slavs, whereas territories to the north of the Avar Khaganate were purely Slav territories. The first specific thing that is known about the fate of these Slavs and Avars is the existence of Moravian and Nitravian principalities in the late 8th century, which attacked the Avars, and the defeat of the Avars by the Franks under Charlemagne in 799 or 802–03, after which the Avars soon ceased to exist. Great Moravia is viewed as a continuation or successor state to Samo's Empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The polity has been called the first Slavic state.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

File:Sámova říše.png

Borders of Slav territories under Samo, 631

Main sources

The main source of written information on Samo and his empire is the Fredegarii Chronicon, a Frankish chronicle written in the mid-7th century (c. 660). Though theories of multiple authorship once abounded, the notion of a single Fredegar is now common scholarly fare.<ref name="Curta59">Curta, 59.</ref> The last or only Fredegar was the author of a brief account of the Wends including the best, and only contemporary, information on Samo. According to Fredegar, "Samo [was] a Frank by birth [or nation] from the pago Senonago", which could be present-day Soignies in Belgium or present-day Sens in France. Although he was of Frankish origin, Samo demanded that an ambassador (Sicharius) of Dagobert I (King of the Franks) put on Slavic clothes before entering his castle.

All other sources for Samo are derived from Fredegar and are much more recent. The Gesta Dagoberti I regis Francorum ("Deeds of King Dagobert I of the Franks") was written in the first third of the 9th century. The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum ("Conversion of the Bavarians and Karantanians") from Salzburg (the Bavarian ecclesiastic centre), written in 871–72, is a very tendentious source, as its name suggests. According mainly to the Conversio, Samo was a Karantanian merchant.

The sources Fredegar used to compile his Wendish account are unknown. A few scholars have attacked the entire account as fictitious, but Fredegar displays a critical attitude and a knowledge of detail that suggest otherwise.<ref name="Curta60">Curta, 60.</ref> It is possible that he had an eyewitness in the person of Sicharius, the ambassador of Dagobert I to the Slavs.<ref name="Curta59"/> According to Fredegar, the "Wends" had long been subjects and befulci of the Avars. Befulci is a term, cognate with the word fulcfree found in the Edict of Rothari, signifying "entrusted [to guard]", from the Old German root felhan, falh, fulgum and Middle German bevelhen.<ref name="Curta60"/> Fredegar appears to have envisaged the Wends as a military unit of the Avar host. He probably based his account on "native" Wendish accounts.<ref name="Curta60"/> Fredegar records the story of the origo gentis (origin of the people) of the Wends. The Wends were Slavs, but Samo was the only king of the Wends, at least according to Fredegar.<ref name="Curta60"/>

It has also been suggested that Fredegar's sources may have been the reports of Christian missionaries, especially disciples of Columbanus and the Abbey of Luxeuil.<ref name="Curta60"/> If this is correct, it may explain why he is remarkably free of typical stereotypes of heathen Slavs, and why he was familiar with the Wends as a specifically pagan nation.<ref name="Curta60"/>

Reign

The dates for Samo's rule are based on Fredegar, who states that he "went to the Slavs in the fortieth year of Chlothar II" (i.e., 623–24) and reigned for thirty five years.<ref name="Curta109" /> The interpretation that places the start of Samo's reign in the year of Fredegar's arrival has been questioned on the basis that the Slavs (known also as the Wends) would have most likely rebelled after the defeat of the Avar khagan at the First Siege of Constantinople in 626.<ref name="Curta109" /> The Avars first arrived in the Pannonian Basin and subdued the local Slavs in the 560s. Samo may have been one of the merchants who supplied arms to the Slavs for their frequent revolts. Whether he became king during a revolt of 623–24 or during one that inevitably followed the Avar defeat in 626, he definitely took advantage of the latter to solidify his position.<ref name="Curta109" /> A string of victories over the Avars proved his utilitas (usefulness) to his subjects and secured his election as rex (king).<ref>Curta, 330.</ref> Samo went on to secure his throne by marriage into the major Wendish families, wedding at least twelve women and fathering twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters.<ref name="Curta331" />

Popular works

Few written works have their storyline taking place during Samo's Empire. One of them is the 2018 book Fire Worshipers, by Vladimír Olej.<ref>Olej, Vladimír: Fire Worshipers, 2018, Template:ISBN</ref> He is a major character (in the first few episodes as an amnesiac stranger going by "Vlad") in a Ukrainian-funded series The Slavs which was as of September 2024 available on Amazon Video.

See also

• Early Slavs
• History of Sorbs
• History of Slovenia
• History of the Czech lands
• History of Slovakia
• Outline of Slavic history and culture
• King of the Wends

References

• Chronicle of Fredegar (7th century)
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite book