Santa language
Template:Short description {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check |unknown=Template:Main other |preview=Page using Template:Infobox language with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| acceptance | agency | aiatsis | aiatsis2 | aiatsis3 | aiatsis4 | aiatsis5 | aiatsis6 | aiatsisname | aiatsisname2 | aiatsisname3 | aiatsisname4 | aiatsisname5 | aiatsisname6 | altname | ancestor | ancestor2 | ancestor3 | ancestor4 | ancestor5 | ancestor6 | ancestor7 | ancestor8 | ancestor9 | ancestor10 | ancestor11 | ancestor12 | ancestor13 | ancestor14 | ancestor15 | boxsize | coordinates | coords | created | creator | date | dateprefix | development_body | dia1 | dia2 | dia3 | dia4 | dia5 | dia6 | dia7 | dia8 | dia9 | dia10 | dia11 | dia12 | dia13 | dia14 | dia15 | dia16 | dia17 | dia18 | dia19 | dia20 | dia21 | dia22 | dia23 | dia24 | dia25 | dia26 | dia27 | dia28 | dia29 | dia30 | dia31 | dia32 | dia33 | dia34 | dia35 | dia36 | dia37 | dia38 | dia39 | dia40 | dialect_label | dialects | ELP | ELP2 | ELP3 | ELP4 | ELP5 | ELP6 | ELPname | ELPname2 | ELPname3 | ELPname4 | ELPname5 | ELPname6 | era | ethnicity | extinct | fam1 | fam2 | fam3 | fam4 | fam5 | fam6 | fam7 | fam8 | fam9 | fam10 | fam11 | fam12 | fam13 | fam14 | fam15 | family | familycolor | fontcolor | glotto | glotto2 | glotto3 | glotto4 | glotto5 | glottoname | glottoname2 | glottoname3 | glottoname4 | glottoname5 | glottopedia | glottorefname | glottorefname2 | glottorefname3 | glottorefname4 | glottorefname5 | guthrie | ietf | image | imagealt | imagecaption | imagescale | iso1 | iso1comment | iso2 | iso2b | iso2comment | iso2t | iso3 | iso3comment | iso6 | isoexception | lc1 | lc2 | lc3 | lc4 | lc5 | lc6 | lc7 | lc8 | lc9 | lc10 | lc11 | lc12 | lc13 | lc14 | lc15 | lc16 | lc17 | lc18 | lc19 | lc20 | lc21 | lc22 | lc23 | lc24 | lc25 | lc26 | lc27 | lc28 | lc29 | lc30 | lc31 | lc32 | lc33 | lc34 | lc35 | lc36 | lc37 | lc38 | lc39 | lc40 | ld1 | ld2 | ld3 | ld4 | ld5 | ld6 | ld7 | ld8 | ld9 | ld10 | ld11 | ld12 | ld13 | ld14 | ld15 | ld16 | ld17 | ld18 | ld19 | ld20 | ld21 | ld22 | ld23 | ld24 | ld25 | ld26 | ld27 | ld28 | ld29 | ld30 | ld31 | ld32 | ld33 | ld34 | ld35 | ld36 | ld37 | ld38 | ld39 | ld40 | linglist | linglist2 | linglist3 | linglist4 | linglist5 | linglist6 | lingname | lingname2 | lingname3 | lingname4 | lingname5 | lingname6 | lingua | lingua2 | lingua3 | lingua4 | lingua5 | lingua6 | lingua7 | lingua8 | lingua9 | lingua10 | linguaname | linguaname2 | linguaname3 | linguaname4 | linguaname5 | linguaname6 | linguaname7 | linguaname8 | linguaname9 | linguaname10 | listclass | liststyle | map | map2 | mapalt | mapalt2 | mapcaption | mapcaption2 | mapscale | minority | module | name | nation | nativename | notice | notice2 | official | posteriori | pronunciation | protoname | pushpin_image | pushpin_label | pushpin_label_position | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption | pushpin_mapsize | qid | ref | refname | region | revived | revived-cat | revived-category | script | setting | sign | signers | speakers | speakers_label | speakers2 | stand1 | stand2 | stand3 | stand4 | stand5 | stand6 | standards | state | states }}<templatestyles src="Template:Infobox/styles-images.css" />
The Santa language, also known as Dongxiang (Template:Lang-zh), is a Mongolic language spoken by the Dongxiang people in Northwest China.
Dialects
There are no dialects in strict sense,Template:Clarify but three local varieties (tuyu) can be found: Suonanba (Template:Circa of all Dongxiang speakers), Wangjiaji (c. 30% of all Dongxiang speakers) and Sijiaji (c. 20% of all Dongxiang speakers).
Phonology
Compared to other Mongolic languages, there is no vowel harmony, except for a handful of suffixes. However, the rules governing this phenomenon are by far not as strict as those of Mongolian.Template:Sfnp
Consonants
Santa has 29 consonants:Template:Sfnp
- The aspirated stops Template:IPA, at varying degrees, tend to be affricated before close vowels as Template:IPA respectively:Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA: This has the most noticeable affrication, seen in Template:Lang Template:IPA (knife).Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA: Still commonly affricated, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA (belt).Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA: Affrication is salient, but seems to be more apparent with Template:IPA than Template:IPA, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (chicken).Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA: This consonant is the least affricated, but is still attested in Template:Lang Template:IPA (to lie down).Template:Sfnp
- Likewise, before non-close vowels non-aspirated stops do not show affrication e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA (to guess), Template:Lang Template:IPA (footprint), or Template:Lang Template:IPA (hot).Template:Sfnp
- Phonemes Template:IPA are only found in loanwords:
- Template:IPA is only found in Chinese-derived words, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (vegetable; from Chinese Template:Lang Template:Lang). It is frequently deaffricated to the native Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA is found within Chinese and Persian borrowings, with Persian Template:Lang Template:Lang (earth) rendered as Template:Lang Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA in the same way is seen in words of Chinese and Arabic origin, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (ginseng; Chinese Template:Lang Template:Lang).Template:Sfnp
- The nasals Template:IPA assimilate to Template:IPA before labials, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (to swim) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (cudgel) respectively. Template:IPA also has another allophone Template:IPAblink before uvulars, cf. Template:Lang Template:IPA (walnut).Template:Sfnp
- Nasals are commonly deleted in the coda, which is an areal feature around the border between Gansu and Qinghai. Although it is not restricted to word-final situations, it is rarer to find deletion there as the following consonantal onsets somehow reinforce the nasal. It should also be noted that vowels preceding nasal consonants are also nasalized themselves.Template:Sfnp
- The central approximants Template:IPA are fricativized Template:IPA when syllable-initial, mainly before close vowels. Template:IPA can further be found before front vowels and even low back vowels. An example of fricatization for each is Template:Lang Template:IPA (one hundred) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (to cry).Template:Sfnp This phenomenon can also be found in neighboring languages, including Dungan and Monguor.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA, which is usually realized as a fricative, can be pronounced as an approximant Template:IPA in fast speech.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA is usually a trill, and length is dependent on the speed of speech; similarly in rapid speech it can become a tap Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp
Vowels
Dongxiang has 7 vowels.Template:Sfnp Unlike other neighboring Mongolic languages, it has limited vowel harmony and no distinctions of vowel length.Template:Sfnp
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Small | Template:Small | Template:Small | Template:Small | ||
| Close | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Open | Template:IPA link | ||||
- Template:IPA, which is usually a close front vowel, has a backened allophone Template:IPAblink after retroflex consonants, and a slightly opened one Template:IPAblink after alveolar affricates and fricatives. Compare Template:Lang Template:IPA (you [2nd sing.]) with Template:Lang Template:IPA (to fly).Template:Sfnp
- Close vowels are devoiced when in an unstressed initial syllable and between voiceless consonants, for example: Template:Lang Template:IPA (ear), Template:Lang Template:IPA (to catch fire) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (hard). This is not the case though before a voiced consonant, especially if it is of native Mongolic origin, as evidenced with Template:Lang Template:IPA (to be exhausted) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (arrow).Template:Sfnp
- In Chinese loans, devoicing is optional, i.e. Template:Lang (cupboard; from Template:Lang Template:Lang) can be pronounced either Template:IPA or Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- The mid-central vowel Template:IPA has also been recorded voiceless in the aforementioned environment: Template:Lang Template:IPA (again).Template:Sfnp
- Devoicing of Template:IPA can also occur regardless of the following sound and in non-initial syllables, under the condition it occurs after Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA (tiger) or Template:Lang Template:IPA (children). Interestingly, it is not often the case, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (pregnant).Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA is always a syllabified as its own, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (twenty), with the exception of one Arabic loanword with glottal Template:IPA as the onset: Template:Lang Template:IPA (spirit; from Template:Lang Template:Lang).Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA is often pronounced with a considerable degree of labialization Template:IPA, however this can be inconsistent, even in the same utterance; cf. Template:Lang Template:IPA (cloud) vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA (to shout).Template:Sfnp
- When stressed, Template:IPA is typically realized as mid-front Template:IPAblink: Template:Lang Template:IPA (donkey). Before Template:IPA, Template:IPAblink is used instead: Template:Lang Template:IPA (rice). Otherwise in unstressed syllables it is mid-central Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA is typically an open back vowel, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA (barley), but before alveolar nasals it is fronted to Template:IPAblink; an example is Template:Lang Template:IPA (carrying pole with loads). Before velar nasals, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA ([political] party), the back form is used.Template:Sfnp
Glides
Although true diphthongal sequences (i.e. complex vowel combinations) do not exist in Santa, combinations with the vowels Template:IPA and the glides Template:IPA do.Template:Sfnp The glides are phonetically realized as non-syllabic vowels Template:IPA and the vowels have the following phonetic realizations below, regardless of any previous allophonic rules as mentioned above.Template:Sfnp
| Vowel + Glide | Glide + Vowel | Additional | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | ||||
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | — | Template:IPA | — | — |
| Template:IPA | — | — | — | — | |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | — | — |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | — | Template:IPA | — | |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | — | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | — | |
Distinct phonetic vowel realizations (note that vowels in other environments take the cardinal form):
- Template:IPA:
- Before Template:IPA, the vowel is raised to Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA (pig), falling somewhere in between Template:IPA and Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- If also after Template:IPA, the vowel is optionally dropped, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA (to become).Template:Sfnp
- After Template:IPA, it is pronounced like stressed Template:IPA; for instance Template:Lang Template:IPA (one) or Template:Lang Template:IPA (wife).Template:Sfnp
- Before Template:IPA, backness is often applied so that it varies between Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA (maggot).Template:Sfnp
- Before Template:IPA, the vowel is raised to Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA (pig), falling somewhere in between Template:IPA and Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA:
- Before Template:IPA, it may be raised, varying from Template:IPA, see Template:Lang Template:IPA (to stop), Template:Lang Template:IPA (navel).Template:Sfnp
- Before Template:IPA, the vowel is often raised and backed, ranging from Template:IPA in Template:Lang Template:IPA (to hit the mark), Template:Lang Template:IPA (old).Template:Sfnp
Phonotactics
The general syllable template for Santa is (C)(G)V(G/N), where the brackets represent optional phonemes. C represents any consonant apart from Template:IPA or a glide, G is one of the glides Template:IPA, V is a vowel and G/N is either a glide or a nasal Template:IPA (occasionally also Template:IPA).Template:Sfnp However, there are further constraints to this scheme:
- The obstruents Template:IPA in words of Monogolic origin can only be found at the beginning of words.Template:Sfnp
- Also, Template:IPA can occur at any position syllable-initially, but not after nasals of glides.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA on the other hand can only occur after vowels. It is also possible for Template:IPA to occur after nasals, but not Template:IPA due to the sonorant rule.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA can occur word-initially but between syllables only after vowels.Template:Sfnp
- It is impossible for non-compounded words of Mongolic origin for a sonorant (with the exception of the glide Template:IPA) to follow a nasal after a syllable boundary. However, three exceptions exist: Template:Lang Template:IPA (forehead), Template:Lang Template:IPA (palate) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (to listen).Template:Sfnp
- Words borrowed from Mandarin Chinese do not follow this rule, seen with Template:Lang Template:IPA (people; from Template:Lang Template:Lang).Template:Sfnp
Stress
The majority of words in Santa are stressed on the final syllable. Examples include Template:Lang Template:IPA (to walk), Template:Lang Template:IPA (fox) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (village). Stress also shifts to the suffix when added to a word: Template:Lang Template:IPA (fox, genitive case), Template:Lang Template:IPA (village, locative case).Template:Sfnp
However, several exceptions to this rule exist:
- Certain suffix clitics prevent the stress from shifting to the final syllable, as seen in Template:Lang Template:IPA (walk!, imperative), Template:Lang Template:IPA (hammer, instrumental). However, not every clitic follows this rule.Template:Sfnp
- The suffixes Template:Lang and Template:Lang receive penultimate stress: Template:Lang Template:IPA (to walk, progressive) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (as soon as one comes).Template:Sfnp
- Similarly, Template:Lang Template:IPA (tiger) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (cloth) are stressed on the initial syllable. There is a minimal pair with Template:Lang where the stress on the final syllable (Template:IPA)means 'to wake up'.Template:Sfnp
- Loanwords may also violate the final stress rule; this is discussed below.Template:Sfnp
In loanwords
In Chinese loanwords, stress is not predictable; this is likely due to the tonal influence from the original pronunciation. However, these tones are based on the dialects of the Hui people rather than the standard dialect. Examples of non-final stress include Template:Lang Template:IPA (nurse; from Template:Lang Template:Lang), Template:Lang Template:IPA (rice paddy; from Template:Lang Template:Lang) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (soybean; from Template:Lang Template:Lang). Minimal pairs, though uncommon, also exist. One example is Template:Lang Template:IPA (persimmon; from Template:Lang Template:Lang) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (lion; from Template:Lang Template:Lang).Template:Sfnp
There are a number of Arabic loanwords which also violate ultimate stress; these include Template:Lang Template:IPA (wisdom; from Template:Lang Template:Lang), Template:Lang Template:IPA (dowry; from Template:Lang Template:Lang), Template:Lang Template:IPA (body, form; from Template:Lang Template:Lang), etc.Template:Sfnp
Some words with unknown origin may also stress on other syllables, including Template:Lang Template:IPA (wild goose), Template:Lang Template:IPA (urinary bladder) and Template:Lang Template:IPA (great-grandfather).Template:Sfnp
Grammar
Morphology
Plural marking
- -la (remaining of nouns)
- -sla/-sila (certain nouns and pronouns)
- -pi (relatives)
Cases
Santa has 6 cases.Template:Sfnp
| Case | Marker | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -∅ | Template:Lang | the horse ran |
| Genitive-accusative | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang | water of the spring |
| Dative-locative-benefactive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | climb the mountain |
| Ablative-comparative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | better than last year |
| Comitative (joint case) | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | you go together with Ibura |
| Comitative (aspect case) | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | I want to settle accounts with you |
| Sociative-instrumental | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | speak in Chinese |
| Locative-prosecutive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | look along the river |
Possessive
Pronoun
| Word | Note | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang | (also -miyi, -miy) | my horse |
| Template:Lang | (also -matayi, -matay) | our (inclusive) horse |
| Template:Lang | (also -bijieyi, -bijiey) | our (exclusive) horse |
| Template:Lang | (also -chiyis, -chiy) | your horse |
| Template:Lang | (also -tayi, -tay) | your (plural) horse |
| Template:Lang | him/her/their (any 3rd person pronoun) horse |
Reflexive
| Particle | Word | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | you call your elder brother to come |
Pronoun declension
1st person
| Case | Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Exclusive | Inclusive | ||
| Nominative | bi / orun (quotation) | bijien | matan / oruntan (quotation) |
| Genitive-accusative | mi-ni / nama-ni (namiyi) | bijien-ni | matan-ni / ma-ni |
| Dative-locative | nama-de / ma-de | bijien-de | matan-de |
| Ablative-comparative | nama-se / ma-se | bijien-se | matan-se |
| Comitative (joint case) | nama-le / ma-le | bijien-le | matan-le |
| Sociative-instrumental | bi-ghala | bijien-ghala | matan-ghala |
2nd person
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | chi | ta / tan |
| Genitive-accusative | chi-ni | ta-ni |
| Dative-locative | chima-de | tan-de |
| Ablative-comparative | chima-se / cha-se | tan-se |
| Comitative (joint case) | chima-le | tan-le |
| Sociative-instrumental | chi-ghala | ta-ghala |
3rd person
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | hhe | tere | egven | hhela | terela | egvenla |
| Genitive-accusative | hhesila | teresila | egvesila | |||
| Dative-locative | hhe-ni | tere-ni | egen-ni | hhela-ni | terela-ni | egvenla-ni |
| Ablative-comparative | hhe-nde | tere-(n)de / ten-de | egven-de | hhela-de | terela-de | egvenla-de |
| Comitative (joint case) | hhe-nse | tere-(n)se | egven-se | hhela-se | terela-se | egvenla-se |
| Sociative-instrumental | hhe-nle | tere-le | egven-le | hhela-le | terela-le | egvenla-le |
| Sociative instrumental | hhe-ghala | tere-ghala | egven-ghala | hhela-ghala | terela-ghala | egvenla-ghala |
Verb suffix
Active verb
- Type category (mood or modality)
| Case | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Imperative | -ye | matanghala yawu-ye | let's go (dual) |
| -gie | chini gien ghujingvan gaoda-gie | may your illness heal quickly | |
| Declarative | -we | bi uzhe-we | I watched |
- Aspect category (manner or state of verb action)
| Aspect | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | -we | bi bazade echi-we | I have gone to Linxia |
| Imperfect | -ne | chi khala echi-ne | where are you going? |
| Continuative | -zhiwe (-zho) | ana-miyi budan gie-zhiwe | my mum is cooking |
Voice category (relationship between action and its subject)
| Voice | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Active voice | -∅ | ||
| Causative voice | -gva | bai-gva | to establish |
| Cooperative voice | -ndu | jie-ndu | to eat |
Numeral: Singular has no suffix, plural suffix is -ndu, the same as Cooperative voice.
Numbers: Singular has no additional component, plural's additional component is -ndu, the same as the additional component for Cooperative voice.
Adverbial verb
| Adverb | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Coordinative adverbial verb | -zhi | shira-zhi ijie | to roast and eat |
| Repetitive adverbial verb | -n | wila-n wila-n yawulawe | walking while crying and crying |
| Purpose adverbial verb | -le | bi nie uzhe-le irewe | I came to take a look |
| Separative adverbial verb | -dene (-de) | chi ijie-dene bi ijieye | you eat first, then I'll eat |
| Conditional adverbial verb | -se | ghura bao-se bi ulie irene | if it rains, I won't come |
| Choice, Limit adverbial verb | -tala | khara olu-tala wilie giewe | work until it gets dark |
| Concessive adverbial verb | -senu | eqiemagva bosi-senu shu uzhezho | read a book after getting up in the morning |
Stative verb
| Tense | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Past | -san (-sen) | ene baodei bolu-sanwe | this wheat is ripe |
| Future | -ku / -wu | echi-ku mo gholowe | the road that needs to be taken is long |
| Present | -chin | enende sao-chin kun wainu uwe | is there anyone living here? |
Existential verbs bi and wi
| bi | wi | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Active verb | wai-ne | wi-we | |
| Stative verb | Past stative verb | bi-san | wi-san |
| Future stative verb | bi-ku | wi-ku | |
| Present stative verb | bi-chin | wi-chin | |
| Adverbial verb | Coordinative adverbial verb | bi-zhi | wi-zhi |
| Separative adverbial verb | bi-dene | wi-dene | |
| Conditional adverbial verb | bi-se | wi-se | |
| Choice, Limit adverbial verb | bi-tala | wi-tala | |
| Concessive adverbial verb | bi-senu | wi-senu | |
| Tense | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Speculative | bi-mu | hhen-de baer bi-mu | he might be rich |
| Recollective | bi-lai | hhe nasun giedun bi-lai bi matawe | I forgot how old he is |
Syntax
In common with other Mongolic languages, Dongxiang is spoken as an SOV language. In Linxia, however, under the influence of the Mandarin Chinese dialects spoken by the neighbouring Hui people, sentences of the SVO type have also been observed.Template:Sfnp
Writing system
Knowledge of Arabic is widespread among the Sarta and as a result, they often use the Arabic script to write down their language informally (cf. the Xiao'erjing system that was used by Hui people); however, this has been little investigated by scholars. Template:As of, the official Latin alphabet for Dongxiang, developed on the basis of the Monguor alphabet, remained in the experimental stage:Template:Sfnp
Numerals
Some numbers in Dongxiang have been heavily influenced by Mandarin. These include 30 (Template:Lang) and 40 (Template:Lang). Meanwhile, both Template:Lang Template:IPA and Template:Lang Template:IPA are used for 20.
The Tangwang language
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There are about 20,000 people in the north-eastern part Dongxiang County, who self-identify as Dongxiang or Hui people who do not speak Dongxiang, but natively speak a Dongxiang-influenced form of Mandarin Chinese. The linguist Mei W. Lee-Smith calls this the "Tangwang language" (Template:Lang-zh), based on the names of the two largest villages (Tangjia and Wangjia, parts of Tangwang Town) where it is spoken and argues it is a creolized language.Template:Sfnp According to Lee-Smith, the Tangwang language uses mostly Mandarin words and morphemes with Dongxiang grammar. Besides Dongxiang loanwords, Tangwang also has a substantial number of Arabic and Persian loanwords.Template:Sfnp
Like Standard Mandarin, Tangwang is a tonal language, but grammatical particles, which are typically borrowed from Mandarin, but are used in the way Dongxiang morphemes would be used in Dongxiang, do not carry tones.Template:Sfnp
For example, while the Mandarin plural suffix -men (们) has only very restricted usage (it can be used with personal pronouns and some nouns related to people), Tangwang uses it, in the form -m, universally, the way Dongxiang would use its plural suffix -la. Mandarin pronoun ni (你) can be used in Tangwang as a possessive suffix (meaning "your"). Unlike Mandarin, but like Dongxiang, Tangwang has grammatical cases as well (however only four of them, unlike eight in Dongxiang).Template:Sfnp
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
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