Scottish English

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Template:English language Template:Culture of Scotland Scottish English is the set of varieties of the English language spoken in Scotland. The transregional, standardised variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English (SSE).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>"... Scottish Standard English, the standard form of the English language spoken in Scotland", Ordnance Survey</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Scottish Standard English may be defined as "the characteristic speech of the professional class [in Scotland] and the accepted norm in schools".<ref>McClure (1994), pp. 79–80</ref> IETF language tag for "Scottish Standard English" is en-scotland.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In addition to distinct pronunciation, grammar and expressions, Scottish English has distinctive vocabulary, particularly pertaining to Scottish institutions such as the Church of Scotland, local government and the education and legal systems.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Scottish Standard English is one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum, with broad Scots at the other.<ref>Stuart-Smith J. "Scottish English: Phonology" in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p. 47</ref> Scottish English may be influenced to varying degrees by Scots.<ref name="Stuart-Smith J. 2008. p.48">Stuart-Smith J. Scottish English: Phonology in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p. 48</ref><ref>Macafee C. "Scots" in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Oxford, 2005. p. 33</ref> Many Scots speakers separate Scots and Scottish English as different registers depending on social circumstances, with Scottish English treated as the formal variety, and Scots as informal.<ref name="Aitken A.J. 1979. p.85">Aitken A.J. "Scottish Speech" in Languages of Scotland, Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. p. 85</ref> Some speakers code switch clearly from one to the other while others style shift in a less predictable and more fluctuating manner.<ref name="Aitken A.J. 1979. p.85"/>

Background

Scottish English resulted from language contact between Scots and the Standard English of England after the 17th century. The resulting shifts to English usage by Scots-speakers resulted in many phonological compromises and lexical transfers, often mistaken for mergers by linguists unfamiliar with the history of Scottish English.<ref>Macafee, C. (2004). "Scots and Scottish English". in Hikey R.(ed.), Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61</ref> Furthermore, the process was also influenced by interdialectal forms, hypercorrections and spelling pronunciations.<ref>Macafee, C. (2004). "Scots and Scottish English". in Hikey R.(ed.). Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 61</ref> (See the section on phonology below.)

History

A Book of Psalms printed in the reign of James VI and I

Convention traces the influence of the English of England upon Scots to the 16th-century Reformation and to the introduction of printing.<ref>McClure (1994), pp. 33ff</ref> Printing arrived in London in 1476, but the first printing press was not introduced to Scotland for another 30 years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Texts such as the Geneva Bible, printed in English, were widely distributed in Scotland in order to spread Protestant doctrine.

King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England in 1603. Since England was the larger and richer of the two Kingdoms, James moved his court to London in England. The poets of the court therefore moved south and "began adapting the language and style of their verse to the tastes of the English market".<ref name="m36">McClure (1994), p. 36</ref> To this event McClure attributes "the sudden and total eclipse of Scots as a literary language".<ref name="m36"/> The continuing absence of a Scots translation of the Bible meant that the translation of King James into English was used in worship in both countries.

The Acts of Union 1707 amalgamated the Scottish and English Parliaments. However the church, educational and legal structures remained separate. This leads to important professional distinctions in the definitions of some words and terms. There are therefore words with precise definitions in Scottish English which are either not used in English English or have a different definition.

Phonology

The speech of the middle classes in Scotland tends to conform to the grammatical norms of the written standard, particularly in situations that are regarded as formal. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the Lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, and lexically influenced by a Gaelic substratum. Similarly, the English spoken in the North-East of Scotland tends to follow the phonology and grammar of Doric.

Although pronunciation features vary among speakers (depending on region and social status), there are a number of phonological aspects characteristic of Scottish English:

• Scottish English is mostly rhotic, meaning Template:IPA is typically pronounced in the syllable coda, although some non-rhotic varieties are present in Edinburgh and Glasgow.<ref name="stuartsmith">Template:Cite book</ref> The phoneme Template:IPA may be a postalveolar approximant Template:IPA, as in Received Pronunciation or General American, but speakers have also traditionally used for the same phoneme a somewhat more common alveolar flap Template:IPA or, now very rare, the alveolar trill Template:IPA<ref>Lodge, Ken (2009). A Critical Introduction to Phonetics. A & C Black. p. 180</ref> (hereafter, Template:Angle bracket will be used to denote any rhotic consonant).
  • Although other dialects have merged non-intervocalic Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA before Template:IPA (fern–fir–fur merger), Scottish English makes a distinction between the vowels in fern, fir, and fur.
  • Many varieties contrast Template:IPA and Template:IPA before Template:IPA so that hoarse and horse are pronounced differently.
  • Template:IPA and Template:IPA are contrasted so that shore and sure are pronounced differently, as are pour and poor.
  • Template:IPA before Template:IPA is strong. An epenthetic vowel may occur between Template:IPA and Template:IPA so that girl and world are two-syllable words for some speakers. The same may occur between Template:IPA and Template:IPA, between Template:IPA and Template:IPA, and between Template:IPA and Template:IPA.
• There is a distinction between Template:IPA and Template:IPA in word pairs such as witch and which.
• The phoneme Template:IPA is common in names and in SSE's many Gaelic and Scots borrowings, so much so that it is often taught to incomers, particularly for "ch" in loch. Some Scottish speakers use it in words of Greek origin as well, such as technical, patriarch, etc. (Wells 1982, 408).
• Template:IPA is usually velarised (see dark l) except in borrowings like "glen" (from Scottish Gaelic "gleann"), which had an unvelarised l in their original form. In areas where Scottish Gaelic was spoken until relatively recently (such as Dumfries and Galloway) and in areas where it is still spoken (such as the West Highlands), velarisation of Template:IPA may be absent in many words in which it is present in other areas, but remains in borrowings that had velarised Template:IPA in Gaelic, such as "loch" (Gaelic "loch") and "clan" (Gaelic "clann").
• Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA are not aspirated in more traditional varieties,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> but are weakly aspirated currently.
• The past ending -ed may be realised with Template:IPA where other accents use Template:IPA, chiefly after unstressed vowels: ended Template:IPA, carried Template:IPA
• The Scottish Vowel Length Rule is a distinctive part of many varieties of Scottish English (Scobbie et al. 1999), though vowel length is generally regarded as non-phonemic. According to the Rule, certain vowels (such as Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA) are generally short but are lengthened before voiced fricatives or before Template:IPA. Lengthening also occurs before a morpheme boundary, so that short need contrasts with long kneed, crude with crewed, and side with sighed.
• Scottish English has no Template:IPA, instead transferring Scots Template:IPA. Phonetically, this vowel may be pronounced Template:IPA or even Template:IPA. Thus pull and pool are homophones.
• Cot and caught are not differentiated in most Central Scottish varieties, as they are in some other varieties.<ref name="Wells, pp. 399 ff">Wells, pp. 399 ff.</ref>
• In most varieties, there is no Template:IPA-Template:IPA distinction; therefore, bath, trap, and palm have the same vowel.<ref name="Wells, pp. 399 ff"/>
• The happY vowel is most commonly Template:IPA (as in face), but may also be Template:IPA (as in kit) or Template:IPA (as in fleece).<ref>Wells, p. 405.</ref>
• Template:IPA is often used in plural nouns where southern English has Template:IPA (baths, youths, etc.); with and booth are pronounced with Template:IPA. (See Pronunciation of English th.)
• In colloquial speech, the glottal stop may be an allophone of Template:IPA after a vowel, as in Template:IPA. These same speakers may "drop the g" in the suffix -ing and debuccalise Template:IPA to Template:IPA in certain contexts.
• Template:IPA may be more open Template:IPA for certain speakers in some regions, so that it sounds more like Template:IPA (although Template:IPA and Template:IPA do not merge). Other speakers may pronounce it as Template:IPA, just as in many other accents, or with a schwa-like (Template:IPA) quality. Others may pronounce it almost as Template:IPA in certain environments, particularly after Template:IPA and Template:IPA.

Vowel table

Monophthongs of Scottish English (from Template:Harvcoltxt)

Scottish English vowels<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Template:Nobold

Pure vowels
Lexical set	Scottish English	Examples
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bid, pit
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bead, peat
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bed, pet
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bay, hey, fate
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bad, pat
Template:Sc2		balm, father, pa
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bod, pot, cot
Template:Sc2		bawd, paw, caught
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	road, stone, toe
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	good, foot, put
Template:Sc2		booed, food
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bud, putt
Diphthongs
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	buy, strive, writhe
	[[Scottish vowel length rule|Template:IPA]]	bind, strife, write
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	how, pout
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	boy, hoy
Vowels followed by Template:IPA
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bar, mar
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	beer, mere
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	bear, mare, Mary
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	born, for
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	boar, four, more
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	boor, moor
Template:Sc2 (Template:IPA	Template:IPA	bird, fir
	Template:IPA	herd, fern
	Template:IPA	curse, fur
Reduced vowels
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	Rosa's, cuppa
Template:Sc2	Template:IPA	runner, mercer

Scotticisms

Template:More citations needed section Scotticisms are idioms or expressions that are characteristic of Scots, especially when used in English.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> They are more likely to occur in spoken than written language.<ref>Aitken A.J. "Scottish Speech in Languages of Scotland", Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. p. 105</ref>

The use of Scottish English, as well as of Scots and of Gaelic in Scotland, were documented over the 20th century by the Linguistic Survey of Scotland at the University of Edinburgh.

Scotticisms are generally divided into two types:<ref>Aitken, A.J. "Scottish Accents and Dialects" in Trudgil, P. Language in the British Isles. 1984. pp. 105–108</ref> covert Scotticisms, which generally go unnoticed as being particularly Scottish by those using them, and overt Scotticisms, usually used for stylistic effect, with those using them aware of their Scottish nature.

Lexical

An example of "outwith" on a sign in Scotland

Scottish English has inherited a number of lexical items from Scots,<ref>Aitken A.J. "Scottish Speech" in Languages of Scotland, Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. pp. 106–107</ref> which are less common in other forms of standard English.Template:Citation needed

General items are Template:Lang, the Scots word for small (also common in Canadian English, New Zealand English and Hiberno-English probably under Scottish influence); Template:Lang or Template:Lang for child (the latter from Common Germanic,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> cf modern Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Faroese Template:Lang, West Frisian bern and also used in Northern English dialects); bonnie for pretty, attractive, (or good looking, handsome, as in the case of Bonnie Prince Charlie); braw for fine; muckle for big; spail or skelf for splinter (cf. spall); snib for bolt; pinkie for little finger; janitor for school caretaker (these last two are also standard in American English); outwith, meaning 'outside of'; cowp for tip or spill; fankle for a tangled mess; kirk for 'church' (from the same root in Old English but with parallels in other Germanic languages, e.g. Old Norse Template:Lang, Dutch Template:Lang). Examples of culturally specific items are Hogmanay, caber, haggis, bothy, scone (also used elsewhere in the British Isles), oatcake (now widespread in the UK), tablet, rone (roof gutter), teuchter, ned, numpty (witless person; now more common in the rest of the UK) and landward (rural); It's your shot for "It's your turn"; and the once notorious but now obsolete tawse.

The diminutive ending "-ie" is added to nouns to indicate smallness, as in laddie and lassie for a young boy and young girl. Other examples are peirie (child's wooden spinning top) and sweetie (piece of confectionery). The ending can be added to many words instinctively, e.g. bairn (see above) can become bairnie, a small shop can become a wee shoppie. These diminutives are particularly common among the older generations and when talking to children.Template:Fact

The use of "How?" meaning "Why?" is distinctive of Scottish, Northern English and Northern Irish English. "Why not?" is often rendered as "How no?".Template:Fact

There is a range of (often anglicised) legal and administrative vocabulary inherited from Scots,<ref>Murison, David (1977, 1978). The Guid Scots Tongue. Edinburgh: William Blackwood, pp. 53–54</ref> e.g. depute Template:IPA for deputy, proven Template:IPA for proved (standard in American English), interdict for '"injunction",<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and sheriff-substitute for "acting sheriff". In Scottish education a short leet is a list of selected job applicants, and a remit is a detailed job description. Provost is used for "mayor" and procurator fiscal for "public prosecutor".

Often, lexical differences between Scottish English and Southern Standard English are simply differences in the distribution of shared lexis, such as stay for "live" (as in: where do you stay?).Template:Fact

Grammatical

The progressive verb forms are used rather more frequently than in other varieties of standard English, for example with some stative verbs (Template:Lang).Template:Fact The future progressive frequently implies an assumption (Template:Lang).Template:Fact

In some areas perfect aspect of a verb is indicated using "be" as auxiliary with the preposition "after" and the present participle: for example "He is after going" instead of "He has gone" (this construction is borrowed from Scottish Gaelic).Template:Fact

The definite article tends to be used more frequently in phrases such as I've got the cold/the flu, he's at the school, I'm away to the kirk.Template:Fact

Speakers often use prepositions differently. The compound preposition off of is often used (Take that off of the table). Scots commonly say I was waiting on you (meaning "waiting for you"), which means something quite different in Standard English.Template:Fact

In colloquial speech shall and ought are scarce, must is marginal for obligation and may is rare. Here are other syntactical structures:

• My hair is needing washed or My hair needs washed for "My hair needs washing" or "My hair needs to be washed".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• Amn't I invited? for Am I not invited?<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Scottish English, the first person declarative I amn't invited and interrogative Amn't I invited? are both possible.Template:Fact

See also

• Bungi dialect of the Canadian Metis people of Scottish/British descent
• Glasgow dialect
• Highland English

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book
• Aitken, A. J. (1979) "Scottish speech: a historical view with special reference to the Standard English of Scotland" in A. J. Aitken and Tom McArthur eds. Languages of Scotland, Edinburgh: Chambers, 85–118. Updated in next.
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

Further reading

• Template:Cite web

External links

• Listen to BBC Radio Scotland Live (many presenters, such as Robbie Shepherd, have a noticeable Scottish accent)
• "Hover and hear" pronunciations in a Standard Scottish accent, and compare side by side with other English accents from Scotland and around the World.
• BBC Voices - Listen to a lot of the voice recordings from many parts of the UK
• Scottish Corpus of Texts & Speech - Multimedia corpus of Scots and Scottish English
• Sounds Familiar?Template:Spaced ndashListen to examples of Scottish English and other regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
• Recent pronunciation changes in Scottish English (audio, starting at 7:10)