Seleucus III Ceraunus

Seleucus III Ceraunus (Ancient Greek: Σέλευκος Κεραυνός, Séleukos Keraunós), later also known as Soter (Ancient Greek: Σωτήρ, Sōtḗr; born 244 or 243 BCE; died 223 BCE in Phrygia), was the eldest son of Seleucus II Callinicus and Laodice II, and for a few years—between 226/5 and 223 BCE—king of the Seleucid Empire. His epithets mean "Thunderbolt" and "Savior," while his birth name was Alexander. In 225 BCE, following the death of his father Seleucus II—who succumbed to injuries from a fall from his horse—Seleucus III succeeded him as king of the Seleucid Empire. In 223 BCE, he was assassinated in Asia Minor by courtiers during a campaign against Attalus I of Pergamon. His brother Antiochus subsequently ascended the throne.

Biography

Seleucus III was born in either 243 or 244 BCE under the name Alexander, as the son of Seleucus II and Laodice.<ref>Schmitt, Hatto, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Antiochos’ des Großen und seiner Zeit, Wiesbaden 1964, pp. 7, 27; Laqueur, Richard, Quaestiones epigraphicae et papyrologicae selectae, Rome 1970 [Strasbourg 1904], p. 66.</ref> After his father's death in 226/5 BCE, he assumed the Seleucid throne<ref>Polybius 4.48.6; 4.51.4; 5.40.5 (Loeb); Eusebius, Chronicon 1 (col. 253, ed. Schöne = Porphyry FGrH 260 F32.8–9); see Beloch, Julius, Griechische Weltgeschichte IV.2, 2nd ed., Berlin/Leipzig 1927, pp. 196–197.</ref> and adopted the regnal name Seleucus. He was given the epithet Ceraunus by his soldiers.<ref>Eusebius, Chronicon 1 (col. 253, ed. Schöne).</ref> Upon his accession, he immediately began military preparations to reconquer the territories in Asia Minor that had broken away from the empire under Antiochus Hierax in 240 BCE and were subsequently annexed by Attalus I of Pergamon.<ref>Polybius 4.48.7; Schmitt, Hatto, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Antiochos’ des Großen und seiner Zeit, Wiesbaden 1964, pp. 41–42.</ref>

His initial strategy—to dispatch generals across the Taurus Mountains—is inferred from Pergamene inscriptions<ref>OGIS 272, 277; IvP 36; these Greek inscriptions are generally interpreted as references to military campaigns under Seleucus III; however, the "strategists of Seleucus" could also refer to generals of Seleucus II; see Schmitt, Hatto, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Antiochos’ des Großen und seiner Zeit, Wiesbaden 1964, p. 43 n. 2.</ref> that celebrate two victories of King Attalus I over the strategoi (στρατηγοί) of Seleucus.<ref>Stähelin, Felix, Geschichte der kleinasiatischen Galater, Leipzig 1907, pp. 28–29.</ref> The name of one of these defeated generals appears to have begun with the letter "Ε-"<ref>IvP 36, line 4.</ref> and has been considered by some scholars to be identical to Epigenes, who is mentioned by Polybius in other contexts and who later fell victim to an intrigue by the general Hermeias.<ref>Köhler, Ulrich, "Die Gründung des Königreichs Pergamon", Historische Zeitschrift 47 (1882), pp. 1–14, here p. 13; Niese, Benedikt, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, vol. 2, Gotha 1899, p. 158.</ref> This identification is now largely discredited for various reasons.<ref>See arguments in Fränkel, Max, Die Inschriften von Pergamon, Berlin 1890, pp. 30–31; Stähelin, Felix, Geschichte der kleinasiatischen Galater, Leipzig 1907, p. 27 n. 1.</ref> Another general may have been the king's uncle,<ref>Polybius 4.51.4; 8.20.11.</ref> Andromachus. His capture by Attalus and subsequent transfer to the Attelid allies in Alexandreia would at least explain why he was later interned there.<ref>Polybius 4.51.1–4; Bouché-Leclercq, Auguste, Histoire des Séleucides, Paris 1913, p. 121.</ref> These campaigns may also have included alliances with local dynasts.<ref>Grainger, John, A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer, Leiden et al. 1997, pp. 63, 101.</ref>

Following these initial defeats, Seleucus decided to intervene personally. In 223 BCE, he appointed the Carian Hermeias as regent and crossed the Taurus Mountains with a large army under the command of his relative Achaeus.<ref>Polybius 5.41.2.</ref> However, before a decisive battle with Attalus could take place, Seleucus found himself in a dire situation in Phrygia. Lacking funds, suffering from political weakness and military incompetence, he was unable to maintain discipline in his forces,<ref>Appian, Syriaca 66 (348).</ref> and in the summer of 223 BCE, he fell victim to a conspiracy orchestrated by the Galatian Apaturius and a certain Nicanor.<ref>Polybius 4.48.7–9; 5.40.6; Appian Syriaca 66 (348); Justin 29.1.3; Eusebius, Chronicon 1 (col. 253, ed. Schöne = Porphyry FGrH 260 F32.9); Jerome, In Danielem 3.10.11 = FGrH 260 F44.</ref> According to Appian, his reign lasted two years,<ref>Appian, Syriaca 66 (348).</ref> whereas the Eusebian tradition gives three years.<ref>Ol. 138.3–139.1 = 226/5–224/3 BCE; Eusebius Chronicon 1 (cols. 253, 263f., ed. Schöne).</ref> After his death, Epigenes led a significant portion of the army back to Syria.<ref>Polybius 5.41.4.</ref>

Seleucus III died without issue; the existence of a son named Antiochus, as postulated by Droysen<ref>Droysen, Johann Gustav, Geschichte des Hellenismus, 2nd ed., vol. III.2, Gotha 1878, pp. 121–122.</ref> based on numismatic evidence<ref>On the supposed coins of this Antiochos cf. Babelon, Ernest, Les Rois De Syrie D’arménie Et De Commagène, pp. lxxiv–lxxvii and pp. 43–45, nos. 325–334.</ref> and the priest list of Seleuceia Pieria,<ref>IGLSyr 3.2.1184 / OGIS 245.</ref> has been refuted by later scholarship.<ref>Wilcken Ulrich, "Antiochos 26", RE I.2 (1894), col. 2470.</ref> The coinage of Seleucus, like that of his father, displays a very limited variety of types: his own portrait, Apollo or Artemis on the obverse, and Apollo on the reverse.<ref>Grainger, John, A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer, Leiden et al. 1997, p. 63.</ref> The cultic title Soter does not appear on Seleucus’ coinage,<ref>Babelon, Ernest, Les Rois De Syrie D’arménie Et De Commagène, Paris 1890, pp. lxxiii–lxxiv and pp. 40–43, nos. 295–324.</ref> nor in the dynastic cult of his brother Antiochus III,<ref>OGIS 233, l. 4.</ref> and only appears during the reign of the latter's son, Seleucus IV.<ref>IGLSyr 3.2.1184 / OGIS 245, ll. 16, 38; see Stähelin, Felix, "Seleukos 5", RE II A,1 (1921), col. 1241–1242; Schmitt, Hatto, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Antiochos’ des Großen und seiner Zeit, Wiesbaden 1964, p. 28.</ref>

After Seleucus III's death, the diadem was initially offered to his relative Achaeus, who had gained the army's trust by killing the conspirators. However, Achaeus declined kingship, thereby enabling the accession of Seleucus’ younger brother Antiochus. Continuing the campaign begun by Seleucus III, Achaeus rapidly advanced through Asia Minor. Despite the recall of a significant portion of the army to Syria after Seleucus’ death, Achaeus eventually succeeded in besieging Attalus in his capital city of Pergamon.<ref>Polybius 4.48.6–11; 5.41.4.</ref>