Self-driving car
Template:Short description Template:About Template:Pp-extended Template:Use American English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Self-driving car
A self-driving car, also known as an autonomous car (AC), driverless car, robotic car or robo-car,<ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="thrun2010toward">Template:Cite journal</ref> is a car that is capable of operating with reduced or no human input.<ref name="tits">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite conference</ref> They are sometimes called robotaxis, though this term refers specifically to self-driving cars operated for a ridesharing company. Self-driving cars are responsible for all driving activities, such as perceiving the environment, monitoring important systems, and controlling the vehicle, which includes navigating from origin to destination.<ref name="tvt">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Template:As of, no system has achieved full autonomy (SAE Level 5). In December 2020, Waymo was the first to offer rides in self-driving taxis to the public in limited geographic areas (SAE Level 4),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Failed verification and Template:As of offers services in Arizona (Phoenix) and California (San Francisco and Los Angeles). In June 2024, after a Waymo self-driving taxi crashed into a utility pole in Phoenix, Arizona, all 672 of its Jaguar I-Pace vehicles were recalled after they were found to have susceptibility to crashing into pole-like items and had their software updated.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":20">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In July 2021, DeepRoute.ai started offering self-driving taxi rides in Shenzhen, China. Starting in February 2022, Cruise offered self-driving taxi service in San Francisco,<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> but suspended service in 2023. In 2021, Honda was the first manufacturer to sell an SAE Level 3 car,<ref name="Honda-Legend" /><ref name="mainichi" /><ref name="car_and_driver_2021-03" /> followed by Mercedes-Benz in 2023.<ref name = "Mercedes-Benz 2023"/>
History
Template:Main Experiments have been conducted on advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) since at least the 1920s.<ref>Template:Cite news Cited in Template:Cite conference</ref> The first ADAS system was cruise control, which was invented in 1948 by Ralph Teetor.
Trials began in the 1950s. The first semi-autonomous car was developed in 1977, by Japan's Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an analog computer. The vehicle reached speeds of Template:Convert with the support of an elevated rail.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and ALV<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref><ref>Template:Cite conference</ref> semi-autonomous projects launched in the 1980s, funded by the United States' Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) starting in 1984 and Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich's EUREKA Prometheus Project in 1987.<ref name="idsia">Template:Cite web</ref> By 1985, ALV had reached Template:Convert, on two-lane roads. Obstacle avoidance came in 1986, and day and night off-road driving by 1987.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1995 Navlab 5 completed the first autonomous US coast-to-coast journey. Traveling from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and San Diego, California, 98.2% of the trip was autonomous. It completed the trip at an average speed of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Until the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005, automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily funded by DARPA, the US Army, and the US Navy, yielding incremental advances in speeds, driving competence, controls, and sensor systems.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The US allocated US$650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which demonstrated automated driving, combining highway-embedded automation with vehicle technology, and cooperative networking between the vehicles and highway infrastructure. The programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA, Navlab drove Template:Convert across the US in 1995, Template:Convert or 98% autonomously.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2015, Delphi piloted a Delphi technology-based Audi, over Template:Convert through 15 states, 99% autonomously.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> In 2015, Nevada, Florida, California, Virginia, Michigan, and Washington DC allowed autonomous car testing on public roads.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
From 2016 to 2018, the European Commission funded development for connected and automated driving through Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT programs.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA) Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in 2019.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In November 2017, Waymo announced testing of autonomous cars without a safety driver.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, an employee was in the car to handle emergencies.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In March 2018, Elaine Herzberg became the first reported pedestrian killed by a self-driving car, an Uber test vehicle with a human backup driver; prosecutors did not charge Uber, while the human driver was sentenced to probation.<ref name=BilleaudAP>Template:Cite news</ref>
In December 2018, Waymo was the first to commercialize a robotaxi service, in Phoenix, Arizona.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In October 2020, Waymo launched a robotaxi service in a (geofenced) part of the area.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=":11">Template:Cite web</ref> The cars were monitored in real-time, and remote engineers intervened to handle exceptional conditions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":11"/>
In March 2019, ahead of Roborace, Robocar set the Guinness World Record as the world's fastest autonomous car. Robocar reached 282.42 km/h (175.49 mph).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In March 2021, Honda began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend Hybrid EX sedans equipped with Level 3 "Traffic Jam Pilot" driving technology, which legally allowed drivers to take their eyes off the road when the car was travelling under Template:Convert.<ref name="Honda-Legend">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="mainichi">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="mlit_2020-11-11">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="car_and_driver_2021-03">Template:Cite web</ref>
In December 2020, Waymo became the first service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in a part of Phoenix, Arizona. Nuro began autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite news</ref> DeepRoute.ai launched robotaxi service in Shenzhen in July 2021.<ref name=":9">Template:Cite web</ref> In December 2021, Mercedes-Benz received approval for a Level 3 car.<ref name="Mercedes_2021-12-09">Template:Cite web</ref> In February 2022, Cruise became the second service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in San Francisco.<ref name=":0" /> In December 2022, several manufacturers scaled back plans for self-driving technology, including Ford and Volkswagen.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2023, Cruise suspended its robotaxi service.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Nuro was approved for Level 4 in Palo Alto in August, 2023.<ref name=":10">Template:Cite web</ref>
Template:As of, vehicles operating at Level 3 and above were an insignificant market factor;Template:Citation needed as of early 2024, Honda leases a Level 3 car in Japan, and Mercedes sells two Level 3 cars in Germany, California and Nevada.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":14">Template:Cite web</ref> BMW also sells its Level 3 Personal Pilot in Germany.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Definitions
Organizations such as SAE have proposed terminology standards. However, most terms have no standard definition and are employed variously by vendors and others. Proposals to adopt aviation automation terminology for cars have not prevailed.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Names such as AutonoDrive, PilotAssist, Full-Self Driving or DrivePilot are used even though the products offer an assortment of features that may not match the names.<ref name=":15">Template:Cite web</ref> Despite offering a system dubbed "Full Self-Driving", Tesla stated that its system did not autonomously handle all driving tasks.<ref>Template:Cite news Tesla vehicles remain at Level 2 automation and are therefore not "fully self-driving" and require active driver supervision. Template:Cbignore</ref> In the United Kingdom, a fully self-driving car is defined as a car so registered, rather than one that supports a specific feature set.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Association of British Insurers claimed that the usage of the word autonomous in marketing was dangerous because car ads make motorists think "autonomous" and "autopilot" imply that the driver can rely on the car to control itself, even though they do not.
Automated driving system
SAE identified 6 levels for driving automation from level 0 to level 5.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> An ADS is an SAE J3016 level 3 or higher system.
Advanced driver assistance system
Template:Main An ADAS is a system that automates specific driving features, such as Forward Collision Warning (FCW), Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB), Lane Departure Warning (LDW), Lane Keeping Assistance (LKA) or Blind Spot Warning (BSW).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> An ADAS requires a human driver to handle tasks that the ADAS does not support.
Autonomy versus automation
Autonomy implies that an automation system is under the control of the vehicle rather than a driver. Automation is function-specific, handling issues such as speed control, but leaves broader decision-making to the driver.<ref name="antsaklis1991introduction">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Euro NCAP defined autonomous as "the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In Europe, the words automated and autonomous can be used together. For instance, Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 supplied:<ref name="Regulation_eU_2019_2144">Regulation (EU) 2019/2144</ref>
- "automated vehicle" means a vehicle that can move without continuous driver supervision, but that driver intervention is still expected or required in the operational design domains (ODD);<ref name="Regulation_eU_2019_2144" />
- "fully automated vehicle" means a vehicle that can move entirely without driver supervision;<ref name="Regulation_eU_2019_2144" />
Cooperative system
A remote driver is a driver that operates a vehicle at a distance, using a video and data connection.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
According to SAE J3016, Template:Blockquote
Operational design domain
Template:ExcerptVendors have taken a variety of approaches to the self-driving problem. Tesla's approach is to allow their "full self-driving" (FSD) system to be used in all ODDs as a Level 2 (hands/on, eyes/on) ADAS.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Waymo picked specific ODDs (city streets in Phoenix and San Francisco) for their Level 5 robotaxi service.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Mercedes Benz offers Level 3 service in Las Vegas in highway traffic jams at speeds up to Template:Convert.<ref name=":13">Template:Cite web</ref> Mobileye's SuperVision system offers hands-off/eyes-on driving on all road types at speeds up to Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> GM's hands-free Super Cruise operates on specific roads in specific conditions, stopping or returning control to the driver when ODD changes. In 2024 the company announced plans to expand road coverage from 400,000 miles to 750,000 miles.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Ford's BlueCruise hands-off system operates on 130,000 miles of US divided highways.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Self-driving
The Union of Concerned Scientists defined self-driving as "cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or 'driverless' cars, they combine sensors and software to control, navigate, and drive the vehicle."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as "driving itself" if the vehicle is "not being controlled, and does not need to be monitored, by an individual".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Another British government definition stated, "Self-driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
British definitions
In British English, the word automated alone has several meanings, such as in the sentence: "Thatcham also found that the automated lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety, going on to say they cannot, therefore, be classed as 'automated driving', preferring 'assisted driving'".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The first occurrence of the "automated" word refers to an Unece automated system, while the second refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle. British law interprets the meaning of "automated vehicle" based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle "driving itself" and an insured vehicle.<ref>Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018</ref>
In November 2023 the British Government introduced the Automated Vehicles Bill. It proposed definitions for related terms:<ref name="52908-3984">Template:Cite web</ref>
- Self-driving: "A vehicle “satisfies the self-driving test” if it is designed or adapted with the intention that a feature of the vehicle will allow it to travel autonomously, and it is capable of doing so, by means of that feature, safely and legally."
- Autonomy: A vehicle travels "autonomously" if it is controlled by the vehicle, and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are monitored by a person who can intervene.
- Control: control of vehicle motion.
- Safe: a vehicle that conforms to an acceptably safe standard.
- Legal: a vehicle that offers an acceptably low risk of committing a traffic infraction.
SAE classificationTemplate:Anchor
A six-level classification system – ranging from fully manual to fully automated – was published in 2014 by SAE International as J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems; the details are revised occasionally.<ref name="SAE-J3016">Template:Cite web</ref> This classification is based on the role of the driver, rather than the vehicle's capabilities, although these are related. After SAE updated its classification in 2016, (J3016_201609),<ref>SAE International</ref> the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) adopted the SAE standard.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The classification is a topic of debate, with various revisions proposed.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Classifications
A "driving mode", aka driving scenario, combines an ODD with matched driving requirements (e.g., expressway merging, traffic jam).<ref name=":5" /><ref name="SAE_definitions">Template:Cite web</ref> Cars may switch levels in accord with the driving mode.
Above Level 1, level differences are related to how responsibility for safe movement is divided/shared between ADAS and driver rather than specific driving features.
| Level | Name | Narrative | Responsibility for: | Mode coverage | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle direction & speed | Monitoring environment | Fallback | |||||
| Template:Vanchor | No Automation | Full-time performance by the driver of all aspects of driving, even when "enhanced by warning or intervention systems" | Driver | Driver | Driver | n/a | |
| Template:Vanchor | Driver Assistance | Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of either steering or speed | ADAS uses information about the driving environment; driver is expected to perform all other driving tasks. | Driver and system | Some | ||
| Template:Vanchor | Partial Automation | Driving mode-specific execution by one or more ADAS for both steering and speed | System | ||||
| Template:Vanchor | Conditional Automation | Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of all aspects of driving | Driver must appropriately respond to a request to intervene. | System | |||
| Template:Vanchor | High Automation | If a driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene, the car can stop safely. | System | Many | |||
| Template:Vanchor | Full Automation | System controls the vehicle under all conditions and circumstances. | All | ||||
SAE Automation Levels have been criticizedTemplate:By whom for their technological focus. It has been argued that the structure of the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better, which may not be the case.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and road user behavior.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Mobileye System
Mobileye CEO Amnon Shashua and CTO Shai Shalev-Shwartz proposed an alternative taxonomy for autonomous driving systems, claiming that a more consumer-friendly approach was needed. Its categories reflect the amount of driver engagement that is required.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":02">Template:Cite web</ref> Some vehicle makers have informally adopted some of the terminology involved, while not formally committing to it.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Eyes-on/hands-on
The first level, hands-on/eyes-on, implies that the driver is fully engaged in operating the vehicle, but is supervised by the system, which intervenes according to the features it supports (e.g., adaptive cruise control, automatic emergency braking). The driver is entirely responsible, with hands on the wheel and eyes on the road.<ref name=":02" />
Eyes-on/hands-off
Eyes-on/hands-off allows the driver to let go of the wheel. The system drives, the driver monitors, and remains prepared to resume control as needed.<ref name=":02" />
Eyes-off/hands-off
Eyes-off/hands-off means that the driver can stop monitoring the system, leaving the system in full control. Eyes-off requires that no errors be reproducible (not triggered by exotic transitory conditions) or frequent, that speeds are contextually appropriate (e.g., 80 mph on limited-access roads), and that the system handles typical maneuvers (e.g., getting cut off by another vehicle). The automation level could vary according to the road (e.g., eyes-off on freeways, eyes-on on side streets).<ref name=":02" />
No driver
The highest level does not require a human driver in the car: monitoring is done either remotely (telepresence) or not at all.<ref name=":02" />
Safety
A critical requirement for the higher two levels is that the vehicle be able to conduct a Minimum Risk Maneuver and stop safely out of traffic without driver intervention.<ref name=":02" />
Technology
Architecture
The perception system processes visual and audio data from outside and inside the car to create a local model of the vehicle, the road, traffic, traffic controls and other observable objects, and their relative motion. The control system then takes actions to move the vehicle, considering the local model, road map, and driving regulations.<ref name="tro">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="MBK">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Several classifications have been proposed to describe ADAS technology. One proposal is to adopt these categories: navigation, path planning, perception, and car control.<ref name="Zhao_2018">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Navigation
Template:Main Navigation involves the use of maps to define a path between origin and destination. Hybrid navigation is the use of multiple navigation systems. Some systems use basic maps, relying on perception to deal with anomalies. Such a map understands which roads lead to which others, whether a road is a freeway, a highway, are one-way, etc. Other systems require highly detailed maps, including lane maps, obstacles, traffic controls, etc.
Perception
ACs need to be able to perceive the world around them. Supporting technologies include combinations of cameras, LiDAR, radar, audio, and ultrasound,<ref name="2020_tech_report">Template:Cite web</ref> GPS, and inertial measurement.<ref name="arxiv">Template:Cite arXiv</ref><ref name="IEEE2">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Deep neural networks are used to analyse inputs from these sensors to detect and identify objects and their trajectories.<ref name="li23less">Template:Cite conference</ref> Some systems use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithms. Another technique is detection and tracking of other moving objects (DATMO), used to handle potential obstacles.<ref name="IEEE1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other systems use roadside real-time locating system (RTLS) technologies to aid localization. Tesla's "vision only" system uses eight cameras, without LIDAR or radar, to create its bird's-eye view of the environment.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Path planning
Path planning finds a sequence of segments that a vehicle can use to move from origin to destination. Techniques used for path planning include graph-based search and variational-based optimization techniques. Graph-based techniques can make harder decisions such as how to pass another vehicle/obstacle. Variational-based optimization techniques require more stringent restrictions on the vehicle's path to prevent collisions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a voronoi diagram, an occupancy grid mapping, or a driving corridor algorithm. The latter allows the vehicle to locate and drive within open space that is bounded by lanes or barriers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Maps
Maps are necessary for navigation. Map sophistication varies from simple graphs that show which roads connect to each other, with details such as one-way vs two-way, to those that are highly detailed, with information about lanes, traffic controls, roadworks, and more.<ref name="2020_tech_report" /> Researchers at the MITComputer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) developed a system called MapLite, which allows self-driving cars to drive with simple maps. The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle, a "sparse topological map" such as OpenStreetMap (which has only 2D road features), with sensors that observe road conditions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> One issue with highly detailed maps is updating them as the world changes. Vehicles that can operate with less-detailed maps do not require frequent updates or geo-fencing.
Sensors
Sensors are necessary for the vehicle to properly respond to the driving environment. Sensor types include cameras, LiDAR, ultrasound, and radar. Control systems typically combine data from multiple sensors.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Multiple sensors can provide a more complete view of the surroundings and can be used to cross-check each other to correct errors.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, radar can image a scene in, e.g., a nighttime snowstorm, that defeats cameras and LiDAR, albeit at reduced precision. After experimenting with radar and ultrasound, Tesla adopted a vision-only approach, asserting that humans drive using only vision, and that cars should be able to do the same, while citing the lower cost of cameras versus other sensor types.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> By contrast, Waymo makes use of the higher resolution of LiDAR sensors and cites the declining cost of that technology.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Drive by wire
Template:Main Drive by wire is the use of electrical or electro-mechanical systems for performing vehicle functions such as steering or speed control that are traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages.
Driver monitoring
Template:Main Driver monitoring is used to assess the driver's attention and alertness. Techniques in use include eye monitoring, and requiring the driver to maintain torque on the steering wheel.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It attempts to understand driver status and identify dangerous driving behaviors.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Vehicle communication
Template:Main Vehicles can potentially benefit from communicating with others to share information about traffic, road obstacles, to receive map and software updates, etc.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="2020_tech_report"/>
ISO/TC 22 specifies in-vehicle transport information and control systems,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> while ISO/TC 204 specifies information, communication and control systems in surface transport.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> International standards have been developed for ADAS functions, connectivity, human interaction, in-vehicle systems, management/engineering, dynamic map and positioning, privacy and security.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Rather than communicating among vehicles, they can communicate with road-based systems to receive similar information.
Software update
Template:See also Software controls the vehicle, and can provide entertainment and other services. Over-the-air updates can deliver bug fixes and additional features over the internet. Software updates are one way to accomplish recalls that in the past required a visit to a service center. In March 2021, the UNECE regulation on software update and software update management systems was published.<ref name="unece156">Template:Cite web</ref>
Safety model
A safety model is software that attempts to formalize rules that ensure that ACs operate safely.<ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref>
IEEE is attempting to forge a standard for safety models as "IEEE P2846: A Formal Model for Safety Considerations in Automated Vehicle Decision Making".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2022, a research group at National Institute of Informatics (NII, Japan) enhanced Mobileye's Reliable Safety System as "Goal-Aware RSS" to enable RSS rules to deal with complex scenarios via program logic.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Notification
The US has standardized the use of turquoise lights to inform other drivers that a vehicle is driving autonomously. It will be used in the 2026 Mercedes-Benz EQS and S-Class sedans with Drive Pilot, an SAE Level 3 driving system.Template:Citation needed
As of 2023, the Turquoise light had not been standardized by the P.R.C or the UN-ECE.<ref name="auto4">Template:Cite web</ref>
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) plays a pivotal role in the development and operation of autonomous vehicles (AVs), enabling them to perceive their surroundings, make decisions, and navigate safely without human intervention. AI algorithms empower AVs to interpret sensory data from various onboard sensors, such as cameras, LiDAR, radar, and GPS, to understand their environment and improve its technological ability and overall safety over time.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Challenges
Obstacles
The primary obstacle to ACs is the advanced software and mapping required to make them work safely across the wide variety of conditions that drivers experience.<ref name="auto3">Template:Cite news</ref> In addition to handling day/night driving in good and bad weather<ref name="technologyreview" /> on roads of arbitrary quality, ACs must cope with other vehicles, road obstacles, poor/missing traffic controls, flawed maps, and handle endless edge cases, such as following the instructions of a police officer managing traffic at a crash site.
Other obstacles include cost, liability,<ref name="auto">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="auto1">Template:Cite web</ref> consumer reluctance,<ref name="auto2">Template:Cite press release</ref> ethical dilemmas,<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> security,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="autosens">Template:Cite web</ref> privacy,<ref name="technologyreview">Template:Cite news</ref> and legal/regulatory framework.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Further, AVs could automate the work of professional drivers, eliminating many jobs, which could slow acceptance.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Concerns
Deceptive marketing
Tesla calls its Level 2 ADAS "Full Self-Driving (FSD) Beta".<ref name="Tesla_FSD_202108">Template:Cite web</ref> US Senators Richard Blumenthal and Edward Markey called on the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to investigate this marketing in 2021.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In December 2021 in Japan, Mercedes-Benz was punished by the Consumer Affairs Agency for misleading product descriptions.<ref name="NHK_Mercedes_2021">Template:Cite news</ref>
Mercedes-Benz was criticized for a misleading US commercial advertising E-Class models.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> At that time, Mercedes-Benz rejected the claims and stopped its "self-driving car" ad campaign that had been running.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In August 2022, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) accused Tesla of deceptive marketing practices.<ref name="cbt_2022">Template:Cite news</ref>
With the Automated Vehicles Bill (AVB) self-driving car-makers could face prison for misleading adverts in the United-Kingdom.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Security
In the 2020s, concerns over ACs' vulnerability to cyberattacks and data theft emerged.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Espionage
In 2018 and 2019, former Apple engineers were charged with stealing information related to Apple's self-driving car project.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2021 the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) accused Chinese security officials of coordinating a hacking campaign to steal information from government entities, including research related to autonomous vehicles.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> China has prepared "the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security (Trial) to protect its own data".<ref name="CN_ADS_2021">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything technologies are based on 5G wireless networks.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Template:As of, the US Congress was considering the possibility that imported Chinese AC technology could facilitate espionage.<ref name="Wired_2022">Template:Cite news</ref>
Testing of Chinese automated cars in the US has raised concern over which US data are collected by Chinese vehicles to be stored in China and any link with the Chinese communist party.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Driver communications
ACs complicate the need for drivers to communicate with each other, e.g., to decide which car enters an intersection first. In an AC without a driver, traditional means such as hand signals do not work (no driver, no hands).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Behavior prediction
ACs must be able to predict the behavior of possibly moving vehicles, pedestrians, etc, in real time in order to proceed safely.<ref name=":7" /> The task becomes more challenging the further into the future the prediction extends, requiring rapid revisions to the estimate to cope with unpredicted behavior. One approach is to wholly recompute the position and trajectory of each object many times per second. Another is to cache the results of an earlier prediction for use in the next one to reduce computational complexity.<ref name="crosato24virtual">Template:Cite conference</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Handover
The ADAS has to be able to safely accept control from and return control to the driver.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Trust
Consumers will avoid ACs unless they trust them as safe.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Robotaxis operating in San Francisco received pushback over perceived safety risks.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Automatic elevators were invented in 1900, but did not become common until operator strikes and trust was built with advertising and features such as an emergency stop button.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, with repeated use of autonomous driving functions, drivers' behavior and trust in autonomous vehicles gradually improved and both entered a more stable state. At the same time, this also improved the performance and reliability of the vehicle in complex conditions, thereby increasing public trust.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Economics
Autonomy also presents various political and economic implications. The transportation sector holds significant sway in many political and economic landscapes. For instance, many US states generate much annual revenue from transportation fees and taxes.<ref name=":17">Template:Cite web</ref> The advent of self-driving cars could profoundly affect the economy by potentially altering state tax revenue streams. Furthermore, the transition to autonomous vehicles might disrupt employment patterns and labor markets, particularly in industries heavily reliant on driving professions.<ref name=":17" /> Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that in 2019, the sector employed over two million individuals as tractor-trailer truck drivers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Additionally, taxi and delivery drivers represented approximately 370,400 positions, and bus drivers constituted a workforce of over 680,000.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Collectively, this amounts to a conceivable displacement of nearly 2.9 million jobs, surpassing the job losses experienced in the 2008 Great Recession.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Equity and inclusion
The prominence of certain demographic groups within the tech industry inevitably shapes the trajectory of autonomous vehicle (AV) development, potentially perpetuating existing inequalities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Ethical issues
Pedestrian detection
Research from Georgia Tech revealed that autonomous vehicle detection systems were generally five percent less effective at recognizing darker-skinned individuals. This accuracy gap persisted despite adjustments for environmental variables like lighting and visual obstructions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Rationale for liability
Standards for liability have yet to be adopted to address crashes and other incidents. Liability could rest with the vehicle occupant, its owner, the vehicle manufacturer, or even the ADAS technology supplier, possibly depending on the circumstances of the crash.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> Additionally, the infusion of ArtificiaI Intelligence technology in autonomous vehicles adds layers of complexity to ownership and ethical dynamics. Given that AI systems are inherently self-learning, a question arises of whether accountability should rest with the vehicle owner, the manufacturer, or the AI developer.<ref name=":18">Template:Cite web</ref>
Trolley problem
The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics. Adapted for ACs, it considers an AC carrying one passenger confronting a pedestrian who steps in its way. The ADAS notionally has to choose between killing the pedestrian or swerving into a wall, killing the passenger.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Possible frameworks include deontology (formal rules) and utilitarianism (harm reduction).<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
One public opinion survey reported that harm reduction was preferred, except that passengers wanted the vehicle to prefer them, while pedestrians took the opposite view. Utilitarian regulations were unpopular.<ref name="Jean-François Bonnefon 1510">Template:Cite journal</ref> Additionally, cultural viewpoints exert substantial influence on shaping responses to these ethical quandaries. Another study found that cultural biases impact preferences in prioritizing the rescue of certain individuals over others in car accident scenarios.<ref name=":18" />
Privacy
Some ACs require an internet connection to function, opening the possibility that a hacker might gain access to private information such as destinations, routes, camera recordings, media preferences, and/or behavioral patterns, although this is true of an internet-connected device.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Road infrastructure
ACs make use of road infrastructure (e.g., traffic signs, turn lanes) and may require modifications to that infrastructure to fully achieve their safety and other goals.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In March 2023, the Japanese government unveiled a plan to set up a dedicated highway lane for ACs.<ref name="Yomiuri_2023-04-10">Template:Cite web</ref> In April 2023, JR East announced their challenge to raise their self-driving level of Kesennuma Line bus rapid transit (BRT) in rural area from the current Level 2 to Level 4 at 60 km/h.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Testing
Approaches
ACs can be tested via digital simulations,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="scenarios">Template:Cite journal</ref> in a controlled test environment,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and/or on public roads. Road testing typically requires some form of permit<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> or a commitment to adhere to acceptable operating principles.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> For example, New York requires a test driver to be in the vehicle, prepared to override the ADAS as necessary.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
2010s and disengagements
In California, self-driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual reports describing how often their vehicles autonomously disengaged from autonomous mode.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This is one measure of system robustness (ideally, the system should never disengage).<ref name="Templeton_2021">Template:Cite news</ref>
In 2017, Waymo reported 63 disengagements over Template:Convert of testing, an average distance of Template:Convert between disengagements, the highest (best) among companies reporting such figures. Waymo also logged more autonomous miles than other companies. Their 2017 rate of 0.18 disengagements per Template:Convert was an improvement over the 0.2 disengagements per Template:Convert in 2016, and 0.8 in 2015. In March 2017, Uber reported an average of Template:Convert per disengagement. In the final three months of 2017, Cruise (owned by GM) averaged Template:Convert per disengagement over Template:Convert.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite news</ref>
2020s
Disengagement definitions
Reporting companies use varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement, and such definitions can change over time.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Templeton_2021" /> Executives of self-driving car companies have criticized disengagements as a deceptive metric, because it does not consider varying road conditions.<ref name="slate_2022-12">Template:Cite news</ref>
Standards
In April 2021, WP.29 GRVA proposed a "Test Method for Automated Driving (NATM)".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In October 2021, Europe's pilot test, L3Pilot, demonstrated ADAS for cars in Hamburg, Germany, in conjunction with ITS World Congress 2021. SAE Level 3 and 4 functions were tested on ordinary roads.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="ITSWC2021">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In November 2022, an International Standard ISO 34502 on "Scenario based safety evaluation framework" was published.<ref name="ISO_34502">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="METI_34502">Template:Cite web</ref>
Collision avoidance
In April 2022, collision avoidance testing was demonstrated by Nissan.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Waymo published a document about collision avoidance testing in December 2022.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Simulation and validation
In September 2022, Biprogy released Driving Intelligence Validation Platform (DIVP) as part of Japanese national project "SIP-adus", which is interoperable with Open Simulation Interface (OSI) of ASAM.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Toyota
In November 2022, Toyota demonstrated one of its GR Yaris test cars, which had been trained using professional rally drivers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Toyota used its collaboration with Microsoft in FIA World Rally Championship since the 2017 season.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Pedestrian reactions
In 2023 David R. Large, senior research fellow with the Human Factors Research Group at the University of Nottingham, disguised himself as a car seat in a study to test people's reactions to driverless cars. He said, "We wanted to explore how pedestrians would interact with a driverless car and developed this unique methodology to explore their reactions." The study found that, in the absence of someone in the driving seat, pedestrians trust certain visual prompts more than others when deciding whether to cross the road.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Incidents
Tesla
As of 2023, Tesla's ADAS Autopilot/Full Self Driving (beta) was classified as Level 2 ADAS.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
On 20 January 2016, the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred, in China's Hubei province.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Initially, Tesla stated that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to determine whether the car had been on Autopilot at the time. However, the car failed to take evasive action.
Another fatal Autopilot crash occurred in May in Florida in a Tesla Model S<ref name="china-fatality">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> that crashed into a tractor-trailer. In a civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla, Tesla documented that the car had been on Autopilot.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> According to Tesla, "neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." Tesla claimed that this was Tesla's first known Autopilot death in over Template:Convert with Autopilot engaged. Tesla claimed that on average one fatality occurs every Template:Convert across all vehicle types in the US.<ref name="AutopilotCrash01">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="AutopilotCrash02">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite press release</ref> However, this number also includes motorcycle/pedestrian fatalities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The ultimate National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report concluded Tesla was not at fault; the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars, the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In February 2025, a Tesla Cybertruck crashed while in Full-Self Driving mode, raising concerns about autonomous driving and prompting an investigation from Tesla who said the crash would be probed "“in line with standard protocol when any of our electric vehicles are involved in an accident while in FSD mode.”<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Google Waymo
In June 2015, Google confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date. Eight involved rear-end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light, in two of which the vehicle was side-swiped by another driver, one in which another driver rolled a stop sign, and one where a driver was controlling the car manually.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In July 2015, three employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear-ended by a car whose driver failed to brake. This was the first collision that resulted in injuries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
According to Google Waymo's accident reports as of early 2016, their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions, of which other drivers were at fault 13 times, although in 2016 the car's software caused a crash.<ref name="WashingtonPost">Template:Cite news</ref> On 14 February 2016 a Google vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google stated, "In this case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car hadn't moved, there wouldn't have been a collision."<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. No injuries were reported.<ref name="WashingtonPost" />
Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG)
In March 2018, Elaine Herzberg died after she was hit by an AC tested by Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) in Arizona. A safety driver was in the car. Herzberg was crossing the road about 400 feet from an intersection.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Some experts said a human driver could have avoided the crash.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Arizona governor Doug Ducey suspended the company's ability to test its ACs citing an "unquestionable failure" of Uber to protect public safety.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Uber also stopped testing in California until receiving a new permit in 2020.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
NTSB's final report determined that the immediate cause of the accident was that safety driver Rafaela Vasquez failed to monitor the road, because she was distracted by her phone, but that Uber's "inadequate safety culture" contributed. The report noted that the victim had "a very high level" of methamphetamine in her body.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The board called on federal regulators to carry out a review before allowing automated test vehicles to operate on public roads.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
In September 2020, Vasquez pled guilty to endangerment and was sentenced to three years' probation.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=BilleaudAP />
NIO Navigate on Pilot
On 12 August 2021, a 31-year-old Chinese man was killed after his NIO ES8 collided with a construction vehicle.Template:Citation needed NIO's self-driving feature was in beta and could not deal with static obstacles.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The vehicle's manual clearly stated that the driver must take over near construction sites. Lawyers of the deceased's family questioned NIO's private access to the vehicle, which they argued did not guarantee the integrity of the data.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Pony.ai
In November 2021, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) notified Pony.ai that it was suspending its testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on 28 October.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In May 2022, DMV revoked Pony.ai's permit for failing to monitor the driving records of its safety drivers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Cruise
Template:See also In April 2022, Cruise's testing vehicle was reported to have blocked a fire engine on emergency call, and sparked questions about its ability to handle unexpected circumstances.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Ford
In February 2024, a driver using the Ford BlueCruise hands-free driving feature struck and killed the driver of a stationary car with no lights on in the middle lane of a freeway in Texas.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In March 2024, a drunk driver who was speeding, holding her cell phone, and using BlueCruise on a Pennsylvania freeway struck and killed two people who had been driving two cars.<ref name=":21">Template:Cite web</ref> The first car had become disabled and was on the left shoulder with part of the car in the left driving lane.<ref name=":21" /> The second driver had parked his car behind the first car presumably to help the first driver.<ref name=":21" />
The NTSB is investigating both incidents.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Total incidents
The NHTSA began mandating incident reports from autonomous vehicle companies in June 2021. Some reports cite incidents from as early as August 2019, with current data available through June 17, 2024.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
There have been a total of 3,979 autonomous vehicle incidents (both ADS and ADAS) reported during this timeframe. 2,146 of those incidents (53.9%) involved Tesla vehicles.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Public opinion surveys
2010s
In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers, 49% said they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners found 37% who initially said they would be interested in purchasing a "fully autonomous car". However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would cost US$3,000 more.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers, 22% had a positive attitude, 10% were undecided, 44% were skeptical and 24% were hostile.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries found 57% "stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the most willing to trust automated technology.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In a 2014 US telephone survey, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2015, a survey of 5,000 people from 109 countries reported that average respondents found manual driving the most enjoyable. 22% did not want to pay more money for autonomy. Respondents were found to be most concerned about hacking/misuse, and were also concerned about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries were less comfortable with their vehicle sharing data.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref> The survey reported consumer interest in purchasing an AC, stating that 37% of surveyed current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested.<ref name=":4" />
In 2016, a survey of 1,603 people in Germany that controlled for age, gender, and education reported that men felt less anxiety and more enthusiasm, whereas women showed the opposite. The difference was pronounced between young men and women and decreased with age.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In a 2016 US survey of 1,584 people, "66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People were worried about safety and hacking risk. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees saw no advantages in this new kind of cars.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In a 2017 survey of 4,135 US adults found that many Americans anticipated significant impacts from various automation technologies including the widespread adoption of automated vehicles.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2019, results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published. The questionnaire was termed the autonomous vehicle acceptance model (AVAM), including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of various automation levels. Users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use autonomous vehicles. Additionally, partial autonomy (regardless of level) was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement (usage of hands, feet and eyes) than full autonomy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the 2020s
In 2022, a survey reported that only a quarter (27%) of the world's population would feel safe in self-driving cars.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2024, a study by Saravanos et al.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> at New York University reported that 87% of their respondents (from a sample of 358) believed that conditionally automated cars (at Level 3) would be easy to use.
Regulation
Template:Main Template:See also The regulation of autonomous cars concerns liability, approvals, and international conventions.
In the 2010s, researchers openly worried that delayed regulations could delay deployment.<ref name="law journal">Template:Cite journal</ref> In 2020, UNECE WP.29 GRVA was issued to address regulation of Level 3 automated driving.
Commercialization
Template:See also Vehicles operating below Level 5 still offer many advantages.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Template:As of most commercially available ADAS vehicles are SAE Level 2. A couple of companies reached higher levels, but only in restricted (geofenced) locations.<ref name="kbb-sdc">Template:Cite web</ref>
Level 2 – Partial Automation
SAE Level 2 features are available as part of the ADAS systems in many vehicles. In the US, 50% of new cars provide driver assistance for both steering and speed.<ref>How Much Automation Does Your Car Really Have? Jeff S. Bartlett, November 4, 2021 https://www.consumerreports.org/cars/automotive-technology/how-much-automation-does-your-car-really-have-level-2-a3543419955/</ref>
Ford started offering BlueCruise service on certain vehicles in 2022; the system is named ActiveGlide in Lincoln vehicles. The system provided features such as lane centering, street sign recognition, and hands-free highway driving on more than 130,000 miles of divided highways. The 2022 1.2 version added features including hands-free lane changing, in-lane repositioning, and predictive speed assist.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In April 2023 BlueCruise was approved in the UK for use on certain motorways, starting with 2023 models of Ford's electric Mustang Mach-E SUV.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Tesla's Autopilot and its Full Self-Driving (FSD) ADAS suites are available on all Tesla cars since 2016. FSD offers highway and street driving (without geofencing), navigation/turn management, steering, and dynamic cruise control, collision avoidance, lane-keeping/switching, emergency braking, obstacle avoidance, but still requires the driver to remain ready to control the vehicle at any moment. Its driver management system combines eye tracking with monitoring pressure on the steering wheel to ensure that drives are both eyes on and hands on.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":12">Template:Cite web</ref>
Tesla's FSD rewrite V12 (released in March 2024) uses a single deep learning transformer model for all aspects of perception, monitoring, and control.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":19">Template:Cite web</ref> It relies on its eight cameras for its vision-only perception system, without use of LiDAR, radar, or ultrasound.<ref name=":19" /> As of January 2024, Tesla has not initiated requests for Level 3 status for its systems and has not disclosed its reason for not doing so.<ref name=":12" />
Development
General Motors is developing the "Ultra Cruise" ADAS system, that will be a dramatic improvement over their current "Super Cruise" system. Ultra Cruise will cover "95 percent" of driving scenarios on 2 million miles of roads in the US, according to the company. The system hardware in and around the car includes multiple cameras, short- and long-range radar, and a LiDAR sensor, and will be powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon Ride Platform. The luxury Cadillac Celestiq electric vehicle will be one of the first vehicles to feature Ultra Cruise.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Regulation
Europe is developing a new "Driver Control Assistance Systems" (DCAS) level 2 regulation to no longer limit the use of lane changing systems to roads with 2 lanes and a physical separation from traffic in the opposite direction.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
China forbid the use of misleading advertising terms. Updates to vehicles already delivered to customers requires regulatory approval.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The US required for towed cars a report to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). New rule limit those reports to car crashes and incidents with death, individual being transported to a hospital for medical treatment, struck vulnerable road user, or airbag deployment.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Level 3 – Conditional Automation
Template:As of, two car manufacturers have sold or leased Level 3 cars: Honda in Japan, and Mercedes in Germany, Nevada and California.<ref name=":14" />
Mercedes Drive Pilot has been available on the EQS and S-class sedan in Germany since 2022, and in California and Nevada since 2023.<ref name=":13" /> A subscription costs between €5,000 and €7,000 for three years in Germany and $2,500 for one year in the United States.<ref name=":16" /> Drive Pilot can only be used when the vehicle is traveling under Template:Convert, there is a vehicle in front, readable line markings, during the day, clear weather, and on freeways mapped by Mercedes down to the centimeter (100,000 miles in California).<ref name=":16">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":13" /> As of April 2024, one Mercedes vehicle with this capability has been sold in California.<ref name=":16" />
Development
Honda continued to enhance its Level 3 technology.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> As of 2023, 80 vehicles with Level 3 support had been sold.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Mercedes-Benz received authorization in early 2023 to pilot its Level 3 software in Las Vegas.<ref name = "Mercedes-Benz 2023">Template:Cite web</ref> California also authorized Drive Pilot in 2023.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
BMW commercialized its AC in 2021.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2023 BMW stated that its Level-3 technology was nearing release. It would be the second manufacturer to deliver Level-3 technology, but the only one with a Level 3 technology which works in the dark.<ref>Level 3 highly automated driving available in the new BMW 7 Series from next spring, 10.11.2023, Press Release, Christophe Koenig, BMW Group https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0438214EN/level-3-highly-automated-driving-available-in-the-new-bmw-7-series-from-next-spring</ref>
In 2023, in China, IM Motors, Mercedes, and BMW obtained authorization to test vehicles with Level 3 systems on motorways.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In September 2021, Stellantis presented its findings from its Level 3 pilot testing on Italian highways. Stellantis's Highway Chauffeur claimed Level 3 capabilities, as tested on the Maserati Ghibli and Fiat 500X prototypes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Polestar, a Volvo Cars' brand, announced in January 2022 its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the Polestar 3 SUV, a Volvo XC90 successor, with technologies from Luminar Technologies, Nvidia, and Zenseact.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In January 2022, Bosch and the Volkswagen Group subsidiary CARIAD released a collaboration for autonomous driving up to Level 3. This joint development targets Level 4 capabilities.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Hyundai Motor Company is enhancing cybersecurity of connected cars to offer a Level 3 self-driving Genesis G90.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Kia and Hyundai Korean car makers delayed their Level 3 plans, and will not deliver Level 3 vehicles in 2023.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Level 4 – High Automation
Waymo offers robotaxi services in parts of Arizona (Phoenix) and California (San Francisco and Los Angeles), as fully autonomous vehicles without safety drivers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In April 2023 in Japan, a Level 4 protocol became part of the amended Road Traffic Act.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> ZEN drive Pilot Level 4 made by AIST operates there.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Development
In July 2020, Toyota started public demonstration rides on Lexus LS (fifth generation) based TRI-P4 with Level 4 capability.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref> In August 2021, Toyota operated a potentially Level 4 service using e-Palette around the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village.<ref name="bloomberg_2021-08">Template:Cite news</ref>
In September 2020, Mercedes-Benz introduced world's first commercial Level 4 Automated Valet Parking (AVP) system named Intelligent Park Pilot for its new S-Class.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In November 2022, Germany’s Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA) approved the system for use at Stuttgart Airport.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In September 2021, Cruise, General Motors, and Honda started a joint testing programme, using Cruise AV.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref> In 2023, the Origin was put on indefinite hold following Cruise's loss of its operating permit.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In January 2023, Holon announced an autonomous shuttle during the 2023 Consumer Electronics Show (CES). The company claimed that the vehicle is the world's first Level 4 shuttle built to automotive standard.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
See also
References
Further reading
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These books are based on presentations and discussions at the Automated Vehicles Symposium organized annually by TRB and AUVSI.
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