Septimania
Septimania<ref>(Template:Langx Template:IPA; Template:Langx Template:IPA)</ref> is a historical region in modern-day southern France.<ref name="Heather 2003">Template:Harvp</ref> It referred to the western part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis that passed to the control of the Visigoths in 462, when Septimania was ceded to their king, Theodoric II.<ref name="Heather 2003"/> During the Early Middle Ages, the region was variously known as Gallia Narbonensis, Gallia, or Narbonensis.<ref name="James, 223"/> The territory of Septimania roughly corresponds with the modern French former administrative region of Languedoc-Roussillon that merged into the new administrative region of Occitanie. In the Visigothic Kingdom, which became centred on Toledo by the end of the reign of Leovigild, Septimania was both an administrative province of the central royal government and an ecclesiastical province whose metropolitan was the Archbishop of Narbonne. Originally, the Goths may have maintained their hold on the Albigeois, but if so it was conquered by the time of Chilperic I.<ref name="James236">Template:Harvp</ref> There is archaeological evidence that some enclaves of Visigothic population remained in Frankish Gaul, near the Septimanian border, after 507.<ref name="James236"/>
The region of Septimania was invaded by the Andalusian Muslims in 719, renamed as Arbūnah and turned into a military base for future operations by the Andalusian military commanders.Template:Refn It passed briefly to the Emirate of Córdoba, which had been expanding from the south during the same century, before its subsequent conquest by the Christian Franks in 759,Template:Refn who by the end of the 9th century renamed it as Gothia or the Gothic March (Marca Gothica). Eventually, the Christian Franks chased the Muslim Arabs and Berbers away from Septimania and conquered Narbonne in 759, and the Carolingian king Pepin the Short came up reinforced.Template:Refn Septimania became a march of the Carolingian Empire and then West Francia down to the 13th century, though it was culturally and politically autonomous from the northern France-based central royal government.<ref name="Riché 1993"/> The region was under the influence of the people from the count territories of Toulouse, Provence, and ancient County of Barcelona.<ref name="Riché 1993">Template:Cite book</ref> It was part of the wider cultural and linguistic region comprising the southern third of France known as Occitania. This area was finally brought under effective control of the French kings in the early 13th century as a result of the Albigensian Crusade, after which it was assigned governors. From the end of the thirteenth century Septimania evolved into the royal province of Languedoc.
The name "Septimania" may derive from the Roman name of the city of Béziers, Colonia Julia Septimanorum Baeterrae, which in turn alludes to the settlement of veterans of the Roman Seventh Legion in the city. The name can also be an allusion to the seven cities (civitates) of the territory: Béziers, Elne, Agde, Narbonne, Lodève, Maguelonne, and Nîmes. Septimania extended to a line halfway between the Mediterranean, and the river Garonne in the northwest; in the east, the Rhône separated it from Provence; and to the south, its boundary was formed by the Pyrénées.<ref name="Heather 2003"/>
Visigothic Narbonensis
Gothic acquisition
Under Theodoric II, the Visigoths settled in Aquitaine as foederati of the Western Roman Empire (450s). Sidonius Apollinaris refers to Septimania as "theirs" during the reign of Avitus (455–456), but Sidonius is probably considering Visigothic settlement in and around Toulouse.<ref name="James, 223">Template:Harvp</ref> The Visigoths were then holding the area around Toulouse against the legal claims of the Empire, though they had more than once offered to exchange it for the Auvergne.<ref name="James, 223"/>
In 462, the Empire, controlled by Ricimer in the name of Libius Severus, granted the Visigoths the western half of the province of Gallia Narbonensis in which to settle.<ref name="Heather 2003"/> The Visigoths additionally occupied Provence (eastern Narbonensis) and only in 475 did the Visigothic king, Euric, cede it to the Empire via a treaty whereby the emperor Julius Nepos recognised the Visigoths' full independence.<ref name="Heather 2003"/>
Visigothic Kingdom
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The Visigoths, perhaps because they were Arian Christians, met with the opposition of the Catholic Franks in Gaul.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> The Franks allied with the Armorici, whose land was under constant threat from the Goths south of the Loire, and in 507 Clovis I, the Frankish king, invaded the Visigothic Kingdom, whose capital lay in Toulouse, with the consent of the leading men of the tribe.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> Clovis defeated the Goths in the battle of Vouillé (507) and the child-king Amalaric was carried for safety into Hispania, while Gesalec was elected to replace him and rule from Narbonne.
Clovis, his son Theuderic I, and his Burgundian allies proceeded to conquer most of the Visigothic territories in Gaul, including the Rouergue (507) and Toulouse (508). The attempt to take Carcassonne, a fortified site guarding the coast of Septimania, was defeated by the Ostrogoths (508) and Septimania thereafter remained in Visigothic hands, though the Burgundians managed to hold Narbonne for a time and drive Gesalec into exile. Border warfare between Gallo-Roman magnates, including Catholic bishops, had existed with the Visigoths during the last centuries of the Western Roman Empire, and it continued under the Franks.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>
The Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great reconquered Narbonne from the Burgundians and retained it as the provincial capital. Theudis was appointed regent at Narbonne by Theodoric while Amalaric was still a minor in Hispania. In 509 Theodoric the Great created the first Germanic kingdom of Septimania, retaining its traditional capital at Narbonne. He appointed as his regent an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. When Theodoric died in 526, Amalaric was elected king in his own right and he immediately made his capital in Narbonne. He ceded Provence, which had at some point passed back into Visigothic control, to the Ostrogothic king Athalaric. The Frankish king of Paris, Childebert I, invaded Septimania in 531 and chased Amalaric to Barcelona in response to pleas from his sister, Chrotilda, that her husband, Amalaric, had been mistreating her. The Franks did not try to hold the province, and, under Amalaric's successor, the centre of gravity of the kingdom crossed the Pyrénées and Theudis made his capital in Barcelona.
Gothic province of Gaul
In the Visigothic Kingdom, which became centred on Toledo by the end of the reign of Leovigild, the province of Gallia Narbonensis (usually shortened to just Gallia or Narbonensis and never called Septimania)<ref name="James, 223"/> was both an administrative province of the central royal government and an ecclesiastical province whose metropolitan was the Archbishop of Narbonne. Originally, the Goths may have maintained their hold on the Albigeois, but if so it was conquered by the time of Chilperic I.<ref name="James236"/> There is archaeological evidence that some enclaves of Visigothic population remained in Frankish Gaul, near the Septimanian border, after 507.<ref name="James236"/> In 534, Prince Theudebert I, son of the Merovingian king Theuderic I of Austrasia, invaded Septimania in concert with Prince Gunthar, son of the Frankish king Chlothar I. Gunthar stopped at Rodez and didn't progress with his troops further into Septimania, whereas Theudebert took and held the country as far as Béziers and Cabrières, from which he took the woman Deuteria as his first wife and future queen consort.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Theudebert and his half-brother Childebert I invaded Hispania as far as Saragossa (534–538). Eventually, the Visigoths regained the territory they had lost in Theudebert's invasion.
The province of Gaul held a unique place in the Visigothic Kingdom, as it was the only province outside of Hispania, north of the Pyrénées, and bordering a strong foreign nation, in this case the Franks. The kings after Alaric II favoured Narbonne as a capital, but twice (611 and 531) were defeated and forced back to Barcelona by the Franks, before Theudis moved the capital there permanently. Under Theodoric Septimania had been safe from Frankish assault, but was raided by Childebert I twice (531 and 541). When Liuva I succeeded to the throne in 568, Septimania was a dangerous frontier province and Hispania was wracked by revolts.<ref name="Thompson19">Template:Harvp</ref> Liuva granted Hispania to his son Leovigild and took Septimania to himself.<ref name="Thompson19"/>
During the revolt of Hermenegild (583–585) against his father Leovigild, Septimania was invaded by Guntram, King of Burgundy, possibly in support of Hermenegild's revolt, since the latter was married to his niece Ingundis. The Frankish attack of 585 was repulsed by Hermenegild's brother Reccared, who was ruling Narbonensis as a sub-king. Hermenegild died at Tarragona that year and it is possible that he had escaped confinement in Valencia and was seeking to join up with his Frankish allies.<ref name="Collins60">Template:Harvp</ref> Alternatively, the invasion may have occurred in response to Hermenegild's death.<ref name="Thompson, 75">Template:Harvp</ref> Reccared meanwhile took Beaucaire (Ugernum) on the Rhône near Tarascon and Cabaret (a fort called "Ram's Head"), both of which lay in Guntram's kingdom.<ref name="Collins60"/><ref name="Thompson, 75"/> Guntram ignored two pleas for a peace in 586 and Reccared undertook the only Visigothic invasion of Francia in response.<ref name="Thompson, 75"/> However, Guntram was not motivated solely by religious alliance with the fellow Catholic Hermenegild, for he invaded Septimania again in 589 and was roundly defeated near Carcassonne by Claudius, Duke of Lusitania.<ref name="Thompson, 95">Template:Harvp</ref> It is clear that the Franks, throughout the sixth century, had coveted Septimania, but were unable to take it and the invasion of 589 was the last attempt.
In the 7th century, Gallia often had its own governors or duces (dukes), who were typically Visigoths. Most public offices were also held by Goths, far out of proportion to their part of the population.<ref name="Thompson227">Template:Harvp</ref>
Culture of Gothic Septimania
The native population of Gallia was referred to by Visigothic and Iberian writers as the "Gauls", and there is a well-attested hatred between the Goths and the Gauls, which was atypical for the kingdom as a whole.<ref name="Thompson227"/> The Gauls commonly insulted the Goths by comparing the strength of their men to that of Gaulish women, though the Iberians regarded themselves as the defenders and protectors of the Gauls. It is only in the time of Wamba (reigned 672–680) and Julian of Toledo, however, that a large Jewish population becomes evident in Septimania: Julian referred to it as a "brothel of blaspheming Jews."<ref name="Thompson228">Template:Harvp</ref>
Thanks to the preserved canons of the Council of Narbonne of 590, a good deal can be known about surviving Gothic Pagan beliefs and practices in Visigothic Septimania. The Council may have been responding in part to the orders of the Third Council of Toledo, which found "the sacrilege of idolatry [to be] firmly implanted throughout almost the whole of Iberia and Septimania."<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> The traditional Roman practice of not working Thursdays in honour of Jupiter was still prevalent.<ref name="McKenna1178">Template:Harvp</ref> The council set down penance to be done for not working on Thursday save for church festivals and commanded the practice of Martin of Braga, rest from rural work on Sundays, to be adopted.<ref name="McKenna1178"/> Also punished by the council were fortunetellers, who were publicly lashed and sold into slavery.
Different theories exist concerning the nature of the frontier between Visigothic Septimania and Frankish Gaul. On the one hand, cultural exchange is generally reputed to have been minimal,<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> but the level of trading activity has been disputed. There have been few to no objects of Neustrian, Austrasian, or Burgundian provenance discovered in Septimania.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> However, a series of Germanic sarcophagi of a unique regional style, variously labelled Visigothic, Aquitainian, or southwestern Gallic, are prevalent on both sides of the Septimanian border.<ref name="James229">Template:Harvp</ref> These sarcophagi are made of locally quarried marble from Saint-Béat and are of varied design, but with generally flat relief which distinguishes them from ancient Roman sarcophagi.<ref name="James229"/> Their production has been dated to either the 5th, 6th, or 7th century, with the second of these being considered the most likely today.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> However, if they were made in the 5th century, while both Aquitaine and Septimani were in Visigothic hands, their existence provides no evidence for a cultural osmosis across the Gothic-Frankish frontier.
A unique style of orange pottery was common in the 4th and 5th centuries in southern Gaul, but the later (6th century) examples culled from Septimania are more orange than their cousins from Aquitaine and Provence and are not found commonly outside of Septimania, a strong indicator that there was little commerce over the frontier or at its ports.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> In fact, Septimania helped to isolate both Aquitaine and Iberia from the rest of the Mediterranean world.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>
Coinage of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania did not circulate in Gaul outside of Septimania and Frankish coinage did not circulate in the Visigothic Kingdom, including Septimania. If there had been a significant amount of commerce over the frontier, the monies paid had to have been melted down immediately and re-minted as foreign coins have not been preserved across the frontier.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>
Frankish conquest of Septimania
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The region of Septimania, in southern Gaul, was the last unconquered province of the Visigothic Kingdom.<ref name="Watson 2003"/> The incursion into Septimania was motivated by the need to secure their territorial gains in Iberia.<ref name="Watson 2003"/> Arab and Berber Muslim forces began to campaign in Septimania in 719.<ref name="Watson 2003">Template:Cite book</ref> The Arab and Berber Muslim forces under al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, wāli (governor-general) of al-Andalus, sweeping up the Iberian peninsula, by 719 had invaded the region of Septimania and deposed the local Visigothic Kingdom in 720.<ref name="Deanesly 2019"/><ref name="Collins 1998"/> The region was renamed Arbūnah and turned into a military base for future operations by the Andalusian military commanders.<ref>Holt, P. M., Lambton, Ann K. S. and Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN, p. 95.</ref> Following the Islamic invasion, al-Andalus was divided into five administrative areas, roughly corresponding to present-day Andalusia, Galicia, Lusitania, Castile and Léon, Aragon, and Catalonia.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>
By 721, al-Samh was reinforced and ready to lay siege to Toulouse, a possession that would open up the bordering region of Aquitaine, but his plans were thwarted in the disastrous battle of Toulouse in 721; the Aquitanian Christian army led by Odo the Great, Duke of Aquitaine defeated the Umayyad Muslim army and achieved a decisive and significant victory.<ref name="Baker 2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> The surviving Umayyad forces drove away from Aquitaine with immense losses, in which al-Samh was so seriously wounded that he soon died at Narbonne.<ref name="Baker 2013"/> Arab and Berber Muslim forces, soundly based in Narbonne and easily resupplied by sea, struck in the 720s, conquering Carcassonne on the north-western fringes of Septimania (725). In 731, the Berber lord of the region of Cerdagne, Uthman ibn Naissa, called Munuza by the Franks, was an ally of the Duke of Aquitaine Odo the Great after he revolted against the Emirate of Córdoba, but the rebel lord was killed by the Arab Umayyad commander Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi.
After capturing Bordeaux on the wake of Duke Hunald's detachment attempt, the Carolingian king Charles Martel directed his attention to Septimania and Provence.<ref name="Verbruggen 2005">Template:Cite book</ref> While his reasons for leading a military expedition south remain unclear, it seems that he wanted to seal his newly secured grip on Burgundy,<ref name="Verbruggen 2005"/> now threatened by Umayyad occupation of several cities lying in the lower Rhône, or maybe it provided the excuse he needed to intervene in this territory ruled by Visigothic and Roman laws, far off from the Frankish centre in the north of Gaul. Following the successful military campaigns of the Carolingian duke Charles Martel at the battle of Poitiers in 732 and the siege of Avignon in 737,<ref name="Riché 1993"/> the Frankish king went on to attack Narbonne,Template:Refn but the local nobility of Gothic and Gallo-Roman stock had concluded different military and political arrangements to oppose the expanding Frankish realm.<ref name="Collins 1995">Template:Cite book</ref> However, when the Umayyads sent reinforcements from Muslim-ruled Iberia, the Frankish Christian army intercepted a sizeable group of Arab-Berber Muslim troops led by Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj<ref name="Collins 1995"/> along the banks of the River Berre (located in the present-day Department of Aude) and achieved a decisive and significant victory against the Umayyad invaders,Template:Refn after which the Frankish army marched on Nîmes.Template:RefnTemplate:Efn In the aftermath of their resounding victory against the relieving Arab-Berber Muslim forces,Template:Refn the Frankish Christian army pursued the fleeing Arab-Berber Muslim troops into the nearby sea-lagoons, "taking much booty and many prisoners".<ref name="Fouracre2000p97">Template:Cite book</ref> Martel's forces then devastated the principal Umayyad settlements of Septimania, as the Frankish army marched on Agde, Béziers, Maguelonne, and Nîmes.Template:Refn
Around 747, the government of the Septimania region (and the Upper March, from the Pyrénées to the Ebro River) was given to Umar ibn Umar. Umayyad rule collapsed by 750, as its breakdown was caused by the successful Abbasid revolution, and Umayyad territories in Southern Europe were ruled autonomously by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri and his supporters. In 752, the Carolingian king Pepin the Short headed south to Septimania.Template:Refn The Gothic counts of Nîmes, Melguelh, Agde, and Béziers refused allegiance to the emir at Córdoba and declared their loyalty to the Frankish king—the Gothic count of Nîmes, Ansemund, having some authority over the remaining counts.
In 754, an anti-Frankish reaction, led by Ermeniard, killed Ansemund, but the uprising was without success and Radulf was designated new count by the Frankish court. About 755, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Uqba replaced Umar ibn Umar. In 759, Narbonne was not receiving reinforcements from al-Andalus, rife as it was with internal fights.<ref name="Collins 1998"/> Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, wāli of al-Andalus, had to quash a rebellion in Saragossa in 756, and immediately head south to fight Abd ar-Rahman I, who defeated him.<ref name="Collins 1998"/> Northeastern Iberia and the remainder of Septimania was left without any relevant commander in charge. Finally, the Gothic and Gallo-Roman inhabitants of Narbonne surrendered to the Frankish forces, proceeding to eliminate the Andalusian garrison after killing the Arab-Berber Muslim troops, and opening the gates of the stronghold to the investing forces of the Carolingian king.Template:Refn Previously, the Frankish king Pepin had promised to uphold and respect the Visigothic law and probably their own government, so garnering the allegiance of the Gothic nobility of Septimania, including Miló, Gothic count of Narbonne.<ref>Lewis, Archibald R. 1965</ref>
Narbonne capitulated to the Christian Franks in 759 only after Pepin promised the defenders of the city to uphold the Visigothic law, and the county was granted to Miló, Gothic count of Narbonne, thus earning the loyalty of Septimanian Goths against Duke Waifer, the independent ruler (princeps) of Aquitaine.Template:Refn After the Frankish conquest of Narbonne in 759, the Muslim Arabs and Berbers were defeated by the Christian Franks that proceeded to chase them away from Septimania, and the Carolingian king Pepin the Short came up reinforced.Template:Refn The siege remained as a key battlefield in the context of the Carolingian expedition south to Provence and Septimania starting in 752.Template:Refn The Iberian Christian counter-offensive known as the Reconquista began in the early 8th century, when Andalusian Muslim forces managed to temporarily push into Aquitaine.Template:Refn In the wake of Narbonne's submission, Pepin took Roussillon, and then directed his effort against Toulouse, Rouergue, and Albigeois in Aquitaine, leading to the battle for Aquitaine.<ref name="Riché 1993"/>
Gothia in Carolingian times
Blue = realm of Pepin the Short in 758;
Orange = expansion under Charlemagne until 814;
Yellow = Marches and dependencies;
Red = Papal States.
The region of Roussillon was taken by the Franks in 760. Pepin then diverted northwest to Aquitaine, triggering the war against Waifer of Aquitaine. Albi, Rouergue, Gévaudan, and the city of Toulouse were conquered. In 777, the wali of Barcelona, Sulayman al-Arabi, and the wali of Huesca Abu Taur, offered their submission to Charlemagne and also the submission of Husayn, wāli of Zaragoza. When Charlemagne invaded the Upper March in 778, Husayn refused allegiance and he had to retire. In the Pyrénées, the Basques defeated his forces in Roncesvalles (August 15, 778).
The Frankish king found Septimania and the borderlands so devastated and depopulated by warfare, with the inhabitants hiding among the mountains, that he made grants of land that were some of the earliest identifiable fiefs to Visigothic and other refugees. Charlemagne founded several monasteries in Septimania, around which the people gathered for protection. Beyond Septimania to the southern border, Charlemagne established the Hispanic Marches in the borderlands of his empire. The territory passed to Louis the Stammerer, King of Aquitaine, but it was governed by Frankish margraves and then dukes from 817 onwards.
The Frankish noble Bernat of Septimania was the ruler of these lands from 826 to 832. His career (he was beheaded in 844) characterized the turbulent 9th century in Septimania. His appointment as Count of Barcelona in 826 occasioned a general uprising of the Catalan lords (Bellonids) at this intrusion of Frankish power over the lands of Gothia. For suppressing Berenguer of Toulouse and the Catalans, Louis the Pious rewarded Bernat with a series of counties, which roughly delimit 9th century Septimania: Narbonne, Béziers, Agde, Magalona, Nîmes and Uzés. Rising against Charles the Bald in 843, Bernat was apprehended at Toulouse and beheaded. Bernat's son, known as Bernat of Gothia, also served as Count of Barcelona and Girona, and as Margrave of Gothia and Septimania from 865 to 878.
Septimania became known as Gothia after the reign of Charlemagne. It retained these two names while it was ruled by the counts of Toulouse during early part of the Middle Ages, but other names became regionally more prominent such as, Roussillon, Conflent, Razès or Foix, and the name Gothia (along with the older name Septimania) faded away during the 10th century, as the region fractured into smaller feudal entities, which sometimes retained Carolingian titles, but lost their Carolingian character, as the culture of Septimania evolved into the culture of Languedoc. This fragmentation in small feudal entities and the resulting fading and the gradual shifting of the name Gothia are the most probable origins of the ancient geographical area known as Gathalania or Cathalania which has reached our days as the present region of Catalonia.
The name was used because the area was populated by a higher concentration of Goths than in surrounding regions. The rulers of this area, when joined with several counties, were titled the Marquesses of Gothia (and, also, the Dukes of Septimania).