Somatostatin
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Somatostatin, also known as growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or by several other names, is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation via interaction with G protein-coupled somatostatin receptors and inhibition of the release of numerous secondary hormones. Somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion.<ref>"somatostatin". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 04 mag. 2016 <http://www.britannica.com/science/somatostatin>.</ref><ref name="Lehninger2021">Template:Cite book</ref>
Somatostatin has two active forms produced by the alternative cleavage of a single preproprotein: one consisting of 14 amino acids (shown in infobox to right), the other consisting of 28 amino acids.<ref name="GP5416">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Among the vertebrates, there exist six different somatostatin genes that have been named: SS1, SS2, SS3, SS4, SS5 and SS6.<ref name="Liu">Template:Cite journal</ref> Zebrafish have all six.<ref name="Liu"/> The six different genes, along with the five different somatostatin receptors, allow somatostatin to possess a large range of functions.<ref name="Gahete">Template:Cite journal</ref> Humans have only one somatostatin gene, SST.<ref name="entrez">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="pmid6126875">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="pmid6142531">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Nomenclature
Synonyms of "somatostatin" include:Template:Cn
- growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
- growth hormone release–inhibiting hormone (GHRIH)
- somatotropin release–inhibiting factor (SRIF)
- somatotropin release–inhibiting hormone (SRIH)
Production
Digestive system
Somatostatin is secreted by delta cells at several locations in the digestive system, namely the pyloric antrum, the duodenum and the pancreatic islets.<ref name="isbn9781437717532">Template:Cite book</ref>
Somatostatin released in the pyloric antrum travels via the portal venous system to the heart, then enters the systemic circulation to reach the locations where it will exert its inhibitory effects. In addition, somatostatin release from delta cells can act in a paracrine manner.<ref name="isbn9781437717532"/>
In the stomach, somatostatin acts directly on the acid-producing parietal cells via a G-protein coupled receptor (which inhibits adenylate cyclase, thus effectively antagonising the stimulatory effect of histamine) to reduce acid secretion.<ref name="isbn9781437717532"/> Somatostatin can also indirectly decrease stomach acid production by preventing the release of other hormones, including gastrin and histamine which effectively slows down the digestive process.Template:Cn
Brain
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Somatostatin is produced by neuroendocrine neurons of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. These neurons project to the median eminence, where somatostatin is released from neurosecretory nerve endings into the hypothalamohypophysial system through neuron axons. Somatostatin is then carried to the anterior pituitary gland, where it inhibits the secretion of growth hormone from somatotrope cells. The somatostatin neurons in the periventricular nucleus mediate negative feedback effects of growth hormone on its own release; the somatostatin neurons respond to high circulating concentrations of growth hormone and somatomedins by increasing the release of somatostatin, so reducing the rate of secretion of growth hormone.Template:Cn
Somatostatin is also produced by several other populations that project centrally, i.e., to other areas of the brain, and somatostatin receptors are expressed at many different sites in the brain. In particular, populations of somatostatin neurons occur in the arcuate nucleus,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> the hippocampus,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and the brainstem nucleus of the solitary tract.Template:Citation needed
Functions
Somatostatin is classified as an inhibitory hormone,<ref name="GP5416" /> and is induced by low pH.Template:Citation needed Its actions are spread to different parts of the body. Somatostatin release is inhibited by the vagus nerve.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Anterior pituitary
In the anterior pituitary gland, the effects of somatostatin are:
- Inhibiting the release of growth hormone (GH)<ref name="titleSomatostatin">Template:Cite web</ref> (thus opposing the effects of growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH))
- Inhibiting the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)<ref>First Aid for the USMLE Step 1, 2010. Page 286.</ref>
- Inhibiting adenylyl cyclase in parietal cells
- Inhibiting the release of prolactin (PRL)
Gastrointestinal system
- Somatostatin is homologous with cortistatin (see somatostatin family) and suppresses the release of gastrointestinal hormones
- Decreases the rate of gastric emptying, and reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine<ref name="titleSomatostatin"/>
- Suppresses the release of pancreatic hormones
- Somatostatin release is triggered by the beta cell peptide urocortin3 (Ucn3) to inhibit insulin release.<ref name="GP5417">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Inhibits the release of glucagon<ref name="GP5417"/><ref name="Lehninger2021"/>
- Suppresses the exocrine secretory action of the pancreas
Synthetic substitutes
Template:More citations needed section Octreotide (brand name Sandostatin, Novartis Pharmaceuticals) is an octapeptide that mimics natural somatostatin pharmacologically, though is a more potent inhibitor of growth hormone, glucagon, and insulin than the natural hormone, and has a much longer half-life (about 90 minutes, compared to 2–3 minutes for somatostatin). Since it is absorbed poorly from the gut, it is administered parenterally (subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously). It is indicated for symptomatic treatment of carcinoid syndrome and acromegaly.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is also finding increased use in polycystic diseases of the liver and kidney.
Lanreotide (Somatuline, Ipsen Pharmaceuticals) is a medication used in the management of acromegaly and symptoms caused by neuroendocrine tumors, most notably carcinoid syndrome. It is a long-acting analog of somatostatin, like octreotide. It is available in several countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, and was approved for sale in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration on August 30, 2007.
Pasireotide, sold under the brand name Signifor, is an orphan drug approved in the United States and the European Union for the treatment of Cushing's disease in patients who fail or are ineligible for surgical therapy. It was developed by Novartis. Pasireotide is somatostatin analog with a 40-fold increased affinity to somatostatin receptor 5 compared to other somatostatin analogs.
Evolutionary history
Six somatostatin genes have been discovered in vertebrates. The current proposed history as to how these six genes arose is based on the three whole-genome duplication events that took place in vertebrate evolution along with local duplications in teleost fish. An ancestral somatostatin gene was duplicated during the first whole-genome duplication event (1R) to create SS1 and SS2. These two genes were duplicated during the second whole-genome duplication event (2R) to create four new somatostatin genes:SS1, SS2, SS3, and one gene that was lost during the evolution of vertebrates. Tetrapods retained SS1 (also known as SS-14 and SS-28) and SS2 (also known as cortistatin) after the split in the Sarcopterygii and Actinopterygii lineage split. In teleost fish, SS1, SS2, and SS3 were duplicated during the third whole-genome duplication event (3R) to create SS1, SS2, SS4, SS5, and two genes that were lost during the evolution of teleost fish. SS1 and SS2 went through local duplications to give rise to SS6 and SS3.<ref name="Liu"/>
See also
References
Further reading
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External links
Template:Hormones Template:Gastrointestinal physiology Template:Neuropeptides Template:GH/IGF-1 axis signaling modulators