Spruce

From Vero - Wikipedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Template:About Template:Short description Template:Good article Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use British English Template:Automatic taxobox

A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea, a genus of some 37 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Picea is treated either in the subfamily Pinoideae, or the sole genus in its own subfamily Piceoideae.

Spruces can be distinguished from other genera of the family Pinaceae by their needles (leaves), which are four-sided and attached singly to small persistent peg-like structures (pulvini) on the twigs. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the twigs rough with the retained pegs. Pests of spruce forestry include green spruce aphid, eastern spruce budworm, European spruce bark beetle, and great spruce bark beetle.

Spruce is a major producer of timber for construction, and of pulp for paper. It is the standard material for the soundboards of stringed instruments. Native Americans use the roots of some species for weaving baskets. The Norway spruce is widely used for Christmas trees. Artists including Augustin Hirschvogel in the 16th century, Edvard Munch around 1900, and Eija-Liisa Ahtila in the 21st century have depicted spruces in etchings, oil paintings, and video installations.

Etymology

The scientific name derives from Latin "pix", pitch, which was obtained from the resin of Picea abies.<ref name="Huxley">Template:Cite book</ref> Spruce, from Middle English Template:Not a typo or Template:Not a typo appears originally to have denoted goods, including wooden objects, imported from Prussia. The Middle English word is in turn from Old French Template:Lang, "Prussia".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Description

Spruces differ from other Pinaceae in two distinctive characters. Firstly, they have a pulvinus (plural, pulvini), a small peg-like structure at the base of each needle, that remains when the needle falls. Secondly, they have evergreen needle-like leaves that are more or less square in cross-section. The needles stay on the tree for between four and ten years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The tree usually has a straight trunk, though can become bushy or irregular if damaged by wind exposure or biotic factors like browsing or insect damage. Spruces are resinous, and monoecious, with separate male and female cones on the same tree. Young trees have a conical crown; in older trees, this tends to become a roughly cylindrical column; mature heights vary from 10–20 m in the smaller species like Picea mariana, up to a maximum of 100 m in Picea sitchensis. Branches grow from the trunk in regular whorls; the lower branches are mostly soon lost, except when the tree is open-grown in full sun. Young branches rise above the horizontal, but older branches do not. The needles range from 0.6–0.8 cm in Picea orientalis up to 3.5–5 cm in Picea smithiana.<ref name=Vidaković>Template:Cite book</ref> The cones have leaflike bracts that appear at the time of pollination, but unlike Abies (fir cones), these are generally later covered by the seed scales. When mature, the cones range from 2–3.5 cm in Picea mariana, up to 10–20 cm in Picea abies, and nearly as long but stouter and heavier, in Picea smithiana.<ref name=Vidaković/><ref name="Rushforth">Template:Cite book</ref> Each seed sits with its lower half in a cup on the seed scale; the seeds have a large wing.<ref name="International Dendrology Society"/>

Error creating thumbnail:
Picea abies botany. 1:young female cone; 2:male cones; 3:mature female cone; 4:pulvinus at leaf base; 5:squarish cross-section of leaf; 6:top of scale; 7:underside of scale; 10:winged seed

The structure of the cone scales, including length, width, immature colour, shape of the apex, and how much of the scale is free, is the most useful feature for identifying species of spruce.<ref name="Douglas-1975">Douglas, G.W. (1975). Spruce (Picea) hybridization in west-central British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Forest Science, Smithers B. C., unpublished report, cited by Coates, K. D.; Haeussler, S.; Lindeburgh, S.; Pojar, R.; Stock, A. J. (1994). "Ecology and silviculture of interior spruce in British Columbia". Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement For. Resour. Devel., Victoria, British Columbia, FRDA Rep. 220. 182 p.</ref><ref name="Daubenmire-1974">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Taylor-1959">Template:Cite journal (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).</ref> While Picea glauca and Picea engelmannii, for example, differ in shoot and needle characteristics, those with cones present are most easily identified.<ref name="Horton-1956">Horton, K.W. (1956). A taxonomic and ecological study of Picea glauca and Picea engelmannii in North America. Diploma thesis, Oxford University.</ref><ref name="Horton-1959">Horton, K.W. (1959). Characteristics of subalpine spruce in Alberta. Canadian Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Forestry Branch, Forest Resources Division, Ottawa, Ontario, Technical Note 76.</ref><ref name="Coupé-1982">Coupé, R.; Ray, C. A.; Comeau, A.; Ketcheson, M. V.; Annas, R. M. (1982). A guide to some common plants of the Skeena area, British Columbia. B. C. Mining and Forestry, Resources Branch, Victoria, British Columbia.</ref>

Spruces are generally of moderate lifespan, ranging from 100 to 600 years; the oldest reported age for a single tree is 852 years for a specimen of Picea engelmannii.<ref name="GD">Template:Cite web</ref> Clonal reproduction can extend this; a Norway spruce P. abies clonal group in Dalarna, Sweden, nicknamed "Old Tjikko" has reproduced by layering, reaching a claimed age of 9,550 years for the clone as a whole, though not for the small trees that are part of it.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Evolution

Fossil history

Template:Further

Error creating thumbnail:
Fossilised winged seeds of Picea ugoana. Early Miocene, Niigata Prefecture, Japan

The Picea lineage begins in the fossil record around 130 million years ago (mya). The oldest record of spruce that has been found in the fossil record is from the Early Cretaceous (Valanginian) of western Canada, around 136 million years old.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The only surviving branch of the lineage, however, diverged only around 30 mya, meaning that the rest of the crown group has no living descendants. That, in turn, means that the biogeography and ecology of the crown group cannot be inferred from living members of the genus.<ref name="Leslie-2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, middle Eocene spruce fossils have been found in the Buchanan Lake Formation of Canada (46.2–40.4 mya).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

External phylogeny

Based on a transcriptome analysis, Picea is most closely related to the genus Cathaya; those form a clade, sister to the genus Pinus. These genera, with douglas-firs and larches, form the pinoid clade of the Pinaceae.<ref name="Stull-2021">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Template:Clade

Another study produced broadly similar results, but with Cathaya sister to [Picea + Pinus]:<ref name="Lockwood-2013">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Template:Clade

Internal phylogeny

DNA analyses have often conflicted with traditional classifications based on the morphology of needle and cone, but also conflict markedly between studies, with more proposed phylogenies than there are studies, and no consensus by 2015 on the relationships within the genus. In particular there is major discordance between phylogenies based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and those based on chloroplast DNA (cpDNA),<ref name="Bouillé-2011">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Ran-2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> and there is strong evidence for a history of reticulate evolution involving extensive hybrid introgression in the genus,<ref name="Bouillé-2011"/><ref name="Sullivan-2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> which is continuing between several species, such as between Picea abies and Picea obovata (Picea × fennica),<ref name="Krutovskii">Template:Cite journal</ref> and between Picea glauca and Picea engelmannii (Picea × albertiana).<ref name="bc">Template:Cite web</ref>

One of the earliest genetic studies, in 2006 using cpDNA, had found that P. breweriana had a basal position, followed by P. sitchensis.<ref name="Jin-Hua Ran-2006">Template:Cite journal</ref> However, subsequent studies have shown very different results, with both nuclear DNA and mtDNA placing P. sitchensis in a small clade with what had always been presumed from morphology to be its close relatives, P. glauca and P. engelmannii, with the cpDNA result anomalous;<ref name="Lo-2024">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Ran-2015"/><ref name="Sullivan-2017"/><ref name="Zou-2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> likewise, while P. breweriana has still been recovered as basal by some studies,<ref name="Sullivan-2017"/> it was recovered as deeply embedded in the genus, rather than basal, by a study using a large set of nuclear, cp, and mt DNA.<ref name="Lockwood-2013"/><ref name="Zou-2016"/> A further problem with several studies before 2013 was a combination of misidentified samples and contaminated DNA.<ref name="Lockwood-2013"/>

Taxonomy

Taxonomic history

In 1824, Albert Dietrich set up the genus Picea. In 1887, the German botanist Heinrich Moritz Willkomm revised the genus using vegetative characteristics of the trees, rather than of the cones. His classification was followed in 1890 by that of the German botanist Heinrich Mayr, and again in 1982 by that of the Taiwanese biologist Leroy Liu on a similar basis.<ref name="International Dendrology Society">Template:Cite web</ref> In 1989 Peter A. Schmidt classified the species in the genus using mainly seed cone characteristics.<ref name="International Dendrology Society"/><ref name="Schmidt-1989">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Species

Template:As of, Plants of the World Online accepted 37 species.<ref name="POWO">Template:Cite web</ref> As no consensus has emerged on relationships from genetic studies, they are listed below in alphabetical order:

Natural hybrids

These hybrids are known to occur naturally:<ref name="POWO"/>

Cultivated hybrids

The following cultivated origin hybrids have been named; many others have been reported without being named:<ref name=Dallimore>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Vidaković/>

The un-named hybrid between Picea omorika and Picea sitchensis shows marked hybrid vigour and has been considered of potential interest in forestry.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Genome

The nuclear,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> mitochondrial<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and chloroplast<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> genomes of British Columbia interior spruce Picea × albertiana have been sequenced. The large (20 Gbp) nuclear genome and associated gene annotations of interior spruce (genotype PG29) were published in 2013<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and 2015.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Ecology

Establishment

Spruce seedlings are most vulnerable from germination to the following spring. More than half of spruce seedling mortality probably occurs during the first growing season and remains high during the first winter.<ref name="Alexander-1987">Alexander, R.R. (1987). Ecology, silviculture, and management of the Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir type in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. USDA, For. Serv., Washington DC, Agricultural Handbook 659.</ref> Seedlings four to five years old can be considered "established", since only unusual factors such as snow mold, fire, trampling, or predation can then impair regeneration success.<ref name="Noble-1978">Noble, D.L.; Ronco, F. (1978). Seedfall and establishment of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in clearcut openings in Colorado. USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mountain For. Range Exp. Sta., Res. Pap. RM-200.</ref> In dry habitats, seedlings can be considered established when three years old.<ref name="Eis-1967">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Distribution and habitat

Like firs and pines, spruces are important both ecologically and economically in the Northern Hemisphere. While some species are widespread, most have limited geographical ranges. Like firs but unlike pines, spruces are mainly confined to colder areas, with many species in the west of China. The spruces are less tolerant of heat than the firs, and accordingly their distribution reaches further north and less far south.<ref name="International Dendrology Society"/>

Diseases

Sirococcus blight is caused by the deuteromycete fungus Sirococcus tsugae. It affects spruces across the Northern Hemisphere, both in forests and in nurseries, causing severe defoliation and shoot blight. It first appeared in Germany and the United Kingdom in 2014. It is spread when rain splashes on the asexual conidia. Control is limited to biosecurity measures.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Rhizosphaera needle cast, a disease that causes leaf fall, is caused by the infection of spruces by the ascomycete fungus Rhizosphaera in North America. It causes severe defoliation. Dead needles show rows of black fruiting bodies. Infection is mainly on lower branches. Control is possible with the fungicide Chlorothalonil, which prevents new infection, if all needles can be sprayed.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Canker disease of spruce is caused by the ascomycete fungal pathogen Leucostoma kunzei (also called Cytospora and Valsa). It is dispersed by spores from pycnidia within the tree's bark, which contain asexual conidia. The conidia are spread by rain splash. The disease affects all spruce species. Trees are more vulnerable under water stress. Fungicides containing copper prevent new infection but these are readily washed off by rain and are not suitable for forestry use.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Predators

Small mammals ingest conifer seeds, and consume seedlings.<ref name="Wagg-1963">Template:Cite journal</ref> The short-tailed meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus Ord) voraciously eats white spruce and lodgepole pine seedlings, pulling them out of the ground and consuming them whole.<ref name="Wagg-1963"/> The impact varies; in western Montana, spruce seedling success was little better on protected than on unprotected seed spots,<ref name="Schopmeyer-1947">Schopmeyer, C. S.; Helmers, A. E. 1947. Seeding as a means of reforestation in the northern Rocky Mountain Region. USDA Forestry Service, Washington DC, Circular 772.</ref> but in British Columbia, spruce regeneration depends on protection from rodents.<ref name="Smith-1955">Smith, J.H.G. 1955 [1956 acc to E3999 bib]. Some factors affecting reproduction of Engelmann spruce and alpine fir. British Columbia Dep. Lands For., For. Serv., Victoria, British Columbia, Tech. Publ. 43 p. [Coates et al. 1994, Nienstaedt and Teich 1972]</ref> A mouse can eat 2000 white spruce seeds per night.<ref name="Radvanyi-1970">Template:Cite journal</ref> Seed losses can be large: repeated applications of half a million white spruce seeds per hectare in Alberta failed to produce the required 750 trees per hectare.<ref name="Radvanyi-1972">Radvanyi, A. 1972. Small mammals and regeneration of white spruce in western Alberta. p. 21–23 in McMinn, R.G. (Ed.). White Spruce: Ecology of a Northern Resource. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Edmonton, Alberta, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-40.</ref>

Larger mammals too can have an impact; as much as 90% of a cone crop can be harvested by red squirrels,<ref name="Zasada-1978">Zasada, J.C.; Foote, M.J.; Deneke, F.J.; Parkerson, R.H. 1978. Case history of an excellent white spruce cone and seed crop in interior Alaska: cone and seed production, germination and seedling survival. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific NW For. Range Exp. Sta., Portland, Oregon, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-65. 53 p.</ref> while bark-stripping of white spruce by black bears is locally important in Alaska.<ref name="Lutz-1951">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Pests

File:Kuuse-kooreürask ja tegutsemisjäljed Ips typographus.jpg
Gallery of the European spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus) in the inner bark (phloem).

The European spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus, also called the eight-toothed spruce bark beetle) lays its eggs in the inner bark (phloem) of Picea abies, other spruces, and sometimes other conifers across Europe and Asia. They bring with them ophiostomatoid fungi, some of them serious tree pathogens.<ref name="EPPO">Template:Cite web</ref> The larvae make tunnels in the phloem; in large numbers, they can cut off the phloem and kill the tree.<ref name="Hlasny-2019">Template:Cite book</ref>

The eastern spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) is a major pest of spruce trees in forests throughout Canada and the eastern United States.<ref name="Powell-1995">Template:Cite book</ref> Two of the main host plants are black spruce and white spruce.<ref name="Balch-1954">Balch, R.E.; Webb, F.E.; Morris, R.F. (1954). Results of spraying against spruce budworm in New Brunswick. Can. Dep. Agric., For. Biol. Div., Ottawa, Ontario, Bi-mo. Program Report 10(1).</ref> Population levels oscillate, sometimes reaching extreme outbreak levels that can cause extreme defoliation of and damage to spruce trees. To reduce destruction, there are multiple methods of control in place, including pesticides.<ref name="Allison-2016">Template:Cite book</ref>

The great spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) is a destructive pest of spruce forests in western North America,<ref name="Wygant-1967">Wygant, N.D.; Lejeune, R.R. 1967. "Engelmann spruce beetle Dendroctonus obesus (Mann.) (= D. engelmanni Hopk.)". pp. 93–95 in Davidson, A.G.; Prentice, R.M. (Eds.). Important forest insects and diseases of mutual concern to Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Canadian Department of Forestry and Rural Development, Ottawa, Ontario. Publication 1180.</ref> and has become widespread in Europe and Asia. It arrived in the United Kingdom sometime between 1973 and 1982. It causes dieback of spruce, worst when the trees are stressed by drought. Continued attack can kill the trees. The pest is subject to effective biological control by a natural predator, the Siberian beetle Rhizolophus grandis.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The green spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum can cause significant defoliation and occasionally tree death in areas with mild winters. It is native to northern and eastern Europe, where it causes little damage as its population is kept in check by the low winter temperatures in the continental climate of the region, with significant aphid mortality occurring when the air temperature drops below -8°C.<ref name="Day-1998">Template:Cite web</ref> It becomes much more damaging on spruces in oceanic climates with mild winters such as Great Britain, where it is able to breed more continuously through the winter.<ref name="Day-1998"/>

Uses

Timber

File:Wood picea abies (horiz).jpg
Wood of Norway spruce

Spruce is useful as a building wood, known by names such as North American timber, SPF (spruce, pine, fir) and whitewood.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is commonly used in Canadian Lumber Standard (CLS) graded wood.<ref name="Jenkins-2023">Template:Cite web</ref> Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from general construction work and crates to highly specialised uses in wooden aircraft.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Wright brothers' first aircraft, the Flyer, was built of spruce,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> but the 1947 Hughes H-4 Hercules flying boat, known as the "Spruce Goose", was, in fact, mainly made of birch.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Because this species has poor resistance to insects and fungi after logging, it is recommended for indoor construction, such as indoor drywall framing. Spruce wood left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the climate.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Tonewood

File:Politiko Laouto.jpg
A lute with a spruce soundboard

Spruce is the standard material used in soundboards for stringed instruments, including guitars. Wood used for this purpose is called tonewood. Species used include Engelmann spruce in North America, and Sitka spruce in Europe.<ref name="Joh.deHeer!">Template:Cite web</ref> In the Dolomites, the Norway spruces of the Paneveggio "Violins Forest" have for centuries been used for making musical instruments, supposedly including by the leading violin-maker Antonio Stradivari.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Paper

Spruce is a good pulpwood, as it has long fibres which bind together to make strong paper,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> especially from trees over 60 years old. The pulp, known as northern bleached softwood kraft (NBSK), is used to make products such as tissue paper.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Other materials

A spruce root basket woven by Tlingit people, Alaska

The resin was used in the manufacture of pitch in the past (before the use of petrochemicals); the scientific name Picea derives from Latin Template:Wikt-lang "pitch pine" (the Scots pine).<ref>Template:L&S</ref> Native Americans use the thin, pliable roots of some species for weaving baskets<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and for sewing together pieces of birch bark for canoes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Kiidk'yaas, felled in 1997, was a golden Sitka Spruce sacred to the Haida people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Spruces are popular ornamental trees.<ref name="Flora of East Anglia">Template:Cite web</ref> Picea abies is extensively used as Christmas trees.<ref name="Woodland Trust">Template:Cite web</ref> Spruce branches are used at Aintree Racecourse in Liverpool to build fences used as horse jumps on the Grand National course.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Food and drink

The fresh shoots of many spruces are a natural source of vitamin C.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Captain Cook made alcoholic sugar-based spruce beer during his sea voyages in order to prevent scurvy in his crew.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In Finland, young spruce buds are sometimes used as a spice, or boiled with sugar to create spruce bud syrup.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In art

Around 1900, Edvard Munch made numerous oil paintings of spruce forests, now in the Munch Museum in Oslo.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Finnish artist and photographer Eija-Liisa Ahtila's work Horizontal–Vaakasuora, exhibited from 2012 at Stockholm's Moderna Museet and the Shirley Sherwood Gallery depicts a 30-metre-tall spruce, arranged horizontally, in six large video panels.Template:Efn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> XIBT magazine described it as "delving into notions of ecology and symbiosis as well as the essence of existentialism within the context of our external world."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

Template:Commons category

Template:AmCyc Poster

Template:Plant classification Template:Acrogymnospermae classification Template:Tannin source Template:Woodworking Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control

Retrieved from "https://wiki.sarg.dev/index.php?title=Spruce&oldid=122463"