Star of Bethlehem
Template:Short description Template:Other uses
The Star of Bethlehem, or Christmas Star,<ref>Template:Cite web.</ref> appears in the nativity story of the Gospel of Matthew chapter 2 where "wise men from the East" (Magi) are inspired by the star to travel to Jerusalem. There, they meet King Herod of Judea, and ask him: Template:Blockquote
Herod calls together his scribes and priests who, quoting a verse from the Book of Micah, interpret it as a prophecy that the Jewish Messiah would be born in Bethlehem to the south of Jerusalem. Secretly intending to find and kill the Messiah in order to preserve his own kingship, Herod invites the wise men to return to him on their way home.
The star leads them to Jesus' Bethlehem birthplace, where they worship him and give him gifts. The wise men are then given a divine warning not to return to Herod, so they return home by a different route.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Many Christians believe the star was a miraculous sign. Some theologians claimed that the star fulfilled a prophecy, known as the Star Prophecy.<ref name="Freed 2001 93">Template:Cite book</ref> Astronomers have made several attempts to link the star to unusual celestial events, such as a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn or Jupiter and Venus,<ref>Template:Cite web.</ref> a comet, or a supernova.<ref>"Star of Bethlehem." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.</ref> Some modern scholars do not consider the story to be describing a historical event, but rather a pious fiction added later to the main gospel account.<ref>For example, Paul L. Maier, "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem", in Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), 171; Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London: Penguin, 2006, p. 22; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, 1993, p. 85; Aaron Michael Adair, "Science, Scholarship and Bethlehem's Starry Night", Sky and Telescope, Dec. 2007, pp. 26–29 (reviewing astronomical theories).</ref>
The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season.<ref name="Mosley1">Template:Cite web.</ref> However, most ancient sources and Church tradition generally indicate that the wise men visited Bethlehem sometime after Jesus' birth.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The visit is traditionally celebrated on Epiphany (January 6) in Western Christianity.<ref>Template:Cite web.</ref>
The account in the Gospel of Matthew describes Jesus with the broader Greek word Template:Langx, which can mean either "infant" or "child" rather than the more specific word for infant, Template:Langx. This possibly implies that some time has passed since the birth. However, the word Template:Langx is also used in the Gospel of Luke specifically concerning Jesus' birth and his later presentation at the temple.<ref name="Luke 2 bh">Template:Bibleverse</ref> Herod I has all male Hebrew babies in the area up to age two killed in the Massacre of the Innocents.
Matthew's narrative
The Gospel of Matthew tells how the Magi (often translated as "wise men", but more accurately astrologers)Template:Sfn arrive at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and tell the king of a star which signifies the birth of the King of the Jews:
Herod is "troubled", not because of the appearance of the star, but because the Magi have told him that a "king of the Jews" had been born,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> which he understands to refer to the Messiah, a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was believed to be foretold in scripture. He asks his advisors where the Messiah would be born.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> They answer Bethlehem, birthplace of King David, and quote the prophet Micah.<ref group=nb>Template:Bibleverse. Matthew's version is a conflation of Template:Bibleverse and Template:Bibleverse.</ref> The king passes this information along to the Magi.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
In a dream, they are warned not to return to Jerusalem, so they leave for their own country by another route.<ref name="Matt212">Template:Bibleverse</ref> When Herod realizes he has been tricked, he orders the execution of all male children in Bethlehem "two years old and younger," based on the age the child could be in regard to the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared.<ref group=nb>Template:Bibleverse This is presented as a fulfillment of a prophecy and echoes the killing of firstborn by pharaoh in Template:Bibleverse.</ref>
Joseph, warned in a dream, takes his family to Egypt for their safety.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> The gospel links the escape to a verse from scripture, which it interprets as a prophecy: "Out of Egypt I called my son."<ref>Template:Bibleverse The original is from Template:Bibleverse.</ref> This was a reference to the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt under Moses, so the quote suggests that Matthew saw the life of Jesus as recapitulating the story of the Jewish people, with Judea representing Egypt and Herod standing in for pharaoh.<ref>"An Exodus motif prevails in the entire chapter." (Template:Cite book)</ref>
After Herod dies, Joseph and his family return from Egypt,<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> and settle in Nazareth in Galilee.<ref name="Matt223">Template:Bibleverse</ref> This is also said to be a fulfillment of a prophecy ("He will be called a Nazorean," (NRSV) which could be attributed to Judges 13:5<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> regarding the birth of Samson and the Nazirite vow. The word Nazareth is related to the word Template:Transliteration which means "sprout",<ref name="Hebrew meaning netzer">Concordances on the meaning of the word "netzer" on Bible Hub. Retrieved December 29, 2015.</ref> and which some Bible commentators<ref name="Matthew 2:23 commentaries">Commentaries for Matthew 2:23 on Bible Hub. Retrieved on December 29, 2005.</ref> think refers to Isaiah 11:1:<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> "There shall come forth a Rod from the stem of Jesse, And a Branch shall grow out of his roots."<ref name="Isaiah 11:1 bh">Isaiah chapter 11, verse 1 on Bible Hub with commentaries. Retrieved on December 29, 2015.</ref><ref group=nb>Template:Bibleverse is sometimes identified as the source for Template:Bibleverse because the Septuagint's Template:Lang (Nazirite) resembles Matthew's Template:Lang (Nazorean). However, few scholars accept the view that Jesus was a Nazirite.</ref>
Explanations
Pious fiction
Scholars who see the gospel nativity stories as later apologetic accounts created to establish the messianic status of Jesus regard the Star of Bethlehem as a pious fiction.<ref>Template:Citation.</ref><ref>Markus Bockmuehl, This Jesus (Continuum International, 2004), p. 28; Template:Citation; Template:Citation; Believable Christianity: A lecture in the annual October series on Radical Christian Faith at Carrs Lane URC Church, Birmingham, October 5, 2006.</ref> Aspects of Matthew's account which have raised questions of the historical event include: Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the Magi. Some scholars suggest that Jesus was born in Nazareth, and that the Bethlehem nativity narratives were later additions to the gospels intended to present his birth as the fulfillment of prophecy.<ref>Nikkos Kokkinos, "The Relative Chronology of the Nativity in Tertullian", in Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman and others, eds., Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), pp. 125–26.
Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar, The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus, HarperSanFrancisco, 1999, Template:ISBN. pp. 499, 521, 533.
Paul L. Maier, "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem", in Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), 171.
For Micah's prophecy, see Template:Bibleverse.</ref>
According to Bart D. Ehrman, the Matthew account conflicts with that given in the Gospel of Luke, in which the family of Jesus already lives in Nazareth, travel to Bethlehem for the census, and return home almost immediately.<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, Jesus: apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium, Oxford University Press 1999, p. 38.</ref>
Fulfillment of prophecy
The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the Hebrew patriarchs, as well as Greek and Roman heroes.<ref name="Vermes">Template:Cite news</ref>
The Star of Bethlehem is traditionally linked to the Star Prophecy in the Book of Numbers: Template:Poemquote
Although possibly intended to refer to a time that was long past, since the kingdom of Moab had long ceased to exist by the time the Gospels were being written, this passage had become widely seen as a reference to the coming of a Messiah.<ref name="Freed 2001 93"/> It was, for example, cited by Josephus, who believed it referred to Emperor Vespasian.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Origen, one of the most influential early Christian theologians, connected this prophecy with the Star of Bethlehem: Template:Blockquote
Origen suggested that the Magi may have decided to travel to Jerusalem when they "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world".<ref name="Orign3">Template:Cite web. Book I, Chapter LX.</ref>
The Magi are sometimes called "kings" because of the belief that they fulfill prophecies in Isaiah and Psalms concerning a journey to Jerusalem by gentile kings.<ref name="Isaiah">France, R.T., The Gospel according to Matthew: an introduction and commentary, p. 84. See Template:Bibleverse and Template:Bibleverse.</ref> Isaiah mentions gifts of gold and incense.<ref name="Isaiah606">Template:Bibleverse</ref> In the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament probably used by Matthew, these gifts are given as gold and frankincense,<ref>Isaiah 60:6 Template:Webarchive (Septuagint).</ref> similar to Matthew's "gold, frankincense, and myrrh."<ref name="Matt211">Template:Bibleverse</ref> The gift of myrrh symbolizes mortality, according to Origen.<ref name="Orign3" />
While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation, John Chrysostom viewed the star as purely miraculous: "How then, tell me, did the star point out a spot so confined, just the space of a manger and shed, unless it left that height and came down, and stood over the very head of the young child? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said, "Lo, the star went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was."<ref>Template:Cite book.</ref>
Astronomical object
Although the word magi (Greek Template:Lang) is usually translated as "wise men," in this context it probably means 'astronomer'/'astrologer'.Template:Sfn The involvement of astrologers in the story of the birth of Jesus was problematic for the early Church, because they condemned astrology as demonicTemplate:Citation needed; a widely cited explanation was that of Tertullian, who suggested that astrology was allowed 'only until the time of the Gospel'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Planetary conjunction
In 1614, German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in the year 7 BC.<ref name="Mosley1"/> He argued (incorrectly) that a planetary conjunction could create a nova, which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem.<ref name="Mosley1"/> Modern calculations show that there was a gap of nearly a degree (approximately twice a diameter of the moon) between the planets, so these conjunctions were not visually impressive.<ref name="MarkKidger">Template:Cite web</ref> An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period, but does not indicate that the conjunctions were of any special interest.<ref name="MarkKidger"/> In the 20th century, Professor Karlis Kaufmanis, an astronomer, argued that this was an astronomical event where Jupiter and Saturn were in a triple conjunction in the constellation Pisces.<ref>Minnesota Astronomy Review Volume 18 – Fall 2003/2004 Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Audio Version of Star of Bethlehem by Karlis Kaufmanis Template:Cite web</ref> Archaeologist and Assyriologist Simo Parpola has also suggested this explanation.<ref name="Parpola">Simo Parpola, "The Magi and the Star," Bible Review, December 2001, pp. 16–23, 52, 54.</ref>
In 3–2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus near Regulus on June 17, 2 BC. "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe-inspiring event", according to Roger Sinnott.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Another Venus–Jupiter conjunction occurred earlier in August, 3 BC.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> While these events occurred after the generally accepted date of 4 BC for the death of Herod, they did occur during the reign of Caesar Augustus (who is referenced in the Gospel of Luke), and early Christian historians Eusebius and Clement of Alexandria calculated the birth of Jesus to 3-2 BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Since the conjunction would have been seen in the west at sunset it could not have led the magi south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Double occultation on Saturday (Sabbath) April 17, 6 BC
Astronomer Michael R. Molnar argues that the "star in the east" refers to an astronomical event with astrological significance in the context of ancient Greek astrology.<ref name=Weintraub>Weintraub, David A., "Amazingly, astronomy can explain the biblical Star of Bethlehem", Washington Post, December 26, 2014</ref> He suggests a link between the Star of Bethlehem and a double occultation of Jupiter by the Moon on March 20 and April 17 of 6 BC in Aries, particularly the second occultation on April 17.<ref name="Molnar">Template:Citation.</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>For a similar interpretation, see Minnesota Astronomy Review Volume 18 – Fall 2003/2004 Template:Cite web</ref> Occultations of planets by the Moon are quite common, but Firmicus Maternus, an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine, wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king.<ref name="Molnar"/><ref name="Stenger">Template:Cite web</ref> He argues that Aries rather than Pisces was the zodiac symbol for Judea, a fact that would affect previous interpretations of astrological material. Molnar's theory was debated by scientists, theologians, and historians during a colloquium on the Star of Bethlehem at the Netherlands' University of Groningen in October 2014. Harvard astronomer Owen Gingerich supports Molnar's explanation but noted technical questions.<ref name=Govier>Govier, Gordon. "O Subtle Star of Bethlehem", Christianity Today, Vol. 58, No. 10, p. 19, December 22, 2014</ref> "The gospel story is one in which King Herod was taken by surprise," said Gingerich. "So it wasn't that there was suddenly a brilliant new star sitting there that anybody could have seen [but] something more subtle."<ref name=Govier/> Astronomer David A. Weintraub says, "If Matthew's wise men actually undertook a journey to search for a newborn king, the bright star didn't guide them; it only told them when to set out."<ref name=Weintraub/>
There is an explanation given that the events were quite close to the Sun and would not have been visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Kidger3">Template:Citation.</ref>
Regulus, Jupiter, and Venus
Template:SynthesisTemplate:Original research section Attorney Frederick Larson examined the biblical account in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 2<ref name="Matt 2 all bg amp">Matthew chapter 2 on Bible Gateway, Amplified Version with footnotes. Retrieved on December 22, 2015.</ref>Template:Synthesis inline and found the following nine qualities of Bethlehem's Star:<ref name="USA Today Lawton08">Lawton, Kim. "Christmas star debate gets its due on Epiphany". USA Today. January 5, 2008. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref><ref name="abc13 Herzog07">Herzog, Travis. "Did the Star of Bethlehem exist?" abc13 Eyewitness News. December 20, 2007. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref> It signified birth, it signified kingship, it was related to the Jewish nation, and it rose "in the East";<ref name="Matt 2:2 bh">Matthew chapter 2, verse 2. Bible Hub with commentaries. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>Template:Synthesis inline King Herod had not been aware of it;<ref name="Matt2:3 bh">Matthew chapter 2, verse 3. Bible Hub with commentaries. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>Template:Synthesis inline it appeared at an exact time;<ref name="Matt2:7 bh">Matthew chapter 2 verse 7. Bible Hub with commentaries. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>Template:Synthesis inline it endured over time;<ref name="Matt 2:1-10allbhswc">Matthew chapter 2, verses 2–10. Bible Hub with whole chapter and commentaries. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>Template:Synthesis inline and, according to Matthew,<ref name= "Matt2:9">Gospel of Matthew chapter 2 verse 9. Bible Hub with commentaries. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>Template:Synthesis inline it was in front of the Magi when they traveled south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, and then stopped over Bethlehem.<ref name="Ch Hd Ireland">Ireland, Michael. "Evidence emerges for Star of Bethlehem's reality". Assist News Service. Christian Headlines. October 18, 2007. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>
Using the Starry Night astronomy software, and an article<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> written by astronomer Craig Chester<ref name="EthicsD Cliff 2009">Vaughn, Cliff. "The Star of Bethlehem". Ethics Daily. November 26, 2009. Retrieved on January 2, 2016.</ref> based on the work of archeologist and historian Ernest L. Martin,<ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester">Scripps Howard News Service. "Astronomer Analyzes The Star Of Bethlehem". The Chicago Tribune. December 24, 1993. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref><ref name="Martin book">Martin, Ernest. 1991 The Star that Astonished the World. ASK Publications. Can be read for free online, for personal study only. Other uses prohibited. Retrieved on February 12, 2016. Template:ISBN</ref> Larson thinks all nine characteristics of the Star of Bethlehem are found in events that took place in the skies of 3–2 BC.<ref name="abc13 Herzog07"/><ref name="R&E Lawton 2007">Lawton, Kim. "Star of Bethlehem". Interview with Rick Larson. PBS, Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. December 21, 2007. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref> Highlights<ref name="NBC Rao 2011">Rao, Joe. "Was the Star of Bethlehem a star, comet … or miracle?" NBC News. Updated December 12, 2011. Includes a brief interactive at the bottom, "What's the story behind the Star?" showing retrograde motion and the 3–2 BC planetary conjunctions. Retrieved on January 2, 2016.</ref> include a triple conjunction of Jupiter, called the king planet, with the fixed star Regulus, called the king star, starting in September 3 BC.<ref name="SP St dance coronation">Larson, Frederick. "A coronation" Description of Jupiter as king planet. Retrieved December 22, 2015.</ref><ref name="BP2007">Foust, Michael. Baptist Press. December 14, 2007. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref> Larson believes that may be the time of Jesus' conception.<ref name="R&E Lawton 2007"/>
By June of 2 BC, nine months later, the human gestation period, Jupiter had continued moving in its orbit around the Sun and appeared in close conjunction with Venus<ref name="BP2007"/> in June of 2 BC.<ref name="SP Westward leading">Larson, Frederick. "Westward leading" Description of when Jupiter and Venus aligned. Retrieved December 22, 2015.</ref> In Hebrew Jupiter is called Template:Transliteration, meaning "righteousness", a term also used for the Messiah, and suggested that because the planet Venus represents love and fertility, so Chester had suggested astrologers would have viewed the close conjunction of Jupiter and Venus as indicating a coming new king of Israel, and Herod would have taken them seriously.<ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester"/> Astronomer Dave Reneke independently found the June 2 BC planetary conjunction, and noted it would have appeared as a "bright beacon of light".<ref name="Telegraph Reneke 08">Telegraph. "'Jesus was born in June", astronomers claim". The Telegraph. December 9, 2008. Retrieved on December 22, 2015.</ref> According to Chester, the disks of Jupiter and Venus would have appeared to touch<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> and there has not been as close a Venus-Jupiter conjunction since then.<ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester"/>
Jupiter next continued to move and then stopped in its apparent retrograde motion on December 25 of 2 BC over the town of Bethlehem.<ref name="BP2007"/>Template:ClarifyTemplate:Unreliable source? Since planets in their orbits have a "stationary point",<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993">Chester, Craig. "The Star of Bethlehem". Imprimis. December 1993, 22(12). Originally presented at Hillsdale College during fall 1992. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref><ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester"/> a planet moves eastward through the stars but, "As it approaches the opposite point in the sky from the sun, it appears to slow, come to a full stop, and move backward (westward) through the sky for some weeks. Again it slows, stops, and resumes its eastward course," said Chester.<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> The date of December 25 that Jupiter appeared to stop while in retrograde took place in the season of Hanukkah,<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> and is the date later chosen to celebrate Christmas.<ref name="BP2007"/><ref name="Hist Christmas 12-25">"History of Christmas". History. Retrieved on December 22, 2015.</ref>
Heliacal rising
The Magi told Herod that they saw the star "in the East,"<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> or according to some translations, "at its rising",<ref name="rising">Matthew 2:2. New Revised Standard Version.</ref> which may imply the routine appearance of a constellation, or an asterism. One theory interprets the phrase in Matthew 2:2, "in the east," as an astrological term concerning a "heliacal rising." This translation was proposed by Edersheim<ref>Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and times of Jesus the Messiah. Peabody, (MA: Hendrickson, 1993), several references, chapter 8.</ref> and Heinrich Voigt, among others.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The view was rejected by the philologist Franz Boll (1867–1924). Two modern translators of ancient astrological texts insist that the text does not use the technical terms for either a heliacal or an acronycal rising of a star. However, one concedes that Matthew may have used layman's terms for a rising.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Comet
Other writers highly suggest that the star was a comet.<ref name="MarkKidger"/> Halley's Comet was visible in 12 BC and another object, possibly a comet or nova, was seen by Chinese and Korean stargazers in about 5 BC.<ref name="MarkKidger"/><ref>Colin Humphreys, 'The Star of Bethlehem', in Science and Christian Belief 5 (1995), 83–101.</ref> This object was observed for over seventy days, possibly with no movement recorded.<ref name="MarkKidger"/> Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over" specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over" the "place" where Jesus was (the town of Bethlehem).<ref name="Jenkins">Template:Cite news</ref> However, this is generally thought unlikely as in ancient times comets were generally seen as bad omens.<ref>Mark Kidger, Astronomical Enigmas: Life on Mars, the Star of Bethlehem, and Other Milky Way Mysteries, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), page 61.</ref> The comet explanation has been recently promoted by Colin Nicholl. His theory involves a hypothetical comet which could have appeared in 6 BC.<ref>Colin R. Nicholl. 2015. The Great Christ Comet: Revealing the True Star of Bethlehem. Crossway.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Supernova
Physicist Frank Tipler has proposed that the star of Bethlehem was a supernova or hypernova occurring in the nearby Andromeda Galaxy.<ref name=tipler>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although it is difficult to detect a supernova remnant in another galaxy, or obtain an accurate date of when it occurred, supernova remnants have been detected in Andromeda.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Another theory is the more likely supernova of February 23 4 BC, which is speculated to be PSR 1913+16 or the Hulse-Taylor Pulsar. It is said to have appeared in the constellation of Aquila, near the intersection of the winter colure and the equator of date. The nova was "recorded in China, Korea, and Palestine" (probably meaning the Biblical account).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
A nova or comet was recorded in China in 4 BC. "In the reign of Ai-ti, in the third year of the Chien-p'ing period. In the third month, day Template:Transliteration, there was a rising Template:Transliteration at Hoku" (Han Shu, The History of the Former Han Dynasty). The date is equivalent to April 24, 4 BC. This identifies the date when it was first observed in China. It was also recorded in Korea: "In the fifty-fourth year of Hyokkose Wang, in the spring, second month, day Template:Transliteration, a Template:Transliteration appeared at Hoku" (Samguk Sagi, The Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms). The Korean text may have been corrupted because Ho (1962) points out that "the Template:Transliteration day did not fall in the second month that year but on the first month" (February 23) and on the third month (April 24). The original must have read "day Template:Transliteration, first month" (February 23) or "day Template:Transliteration, third month" (April 24). The latter would coincide with the date in the Chinese records although professor Ho suggests the date was "probably February 23, 4 BC."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Relating the star historically to Jesus' birth
Template:See also If the story of the Star of Bethlehem described an actual event, it might identify the year Jesus was born. The Gospel of Matthew describes the birth of Jesus as taking place when Herod was king.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> According to Josephus, Herod died after a lunar eclipse<ref>Josephus, Antiquities XVII:7:4.</ref> and before a Passover Feast.<ref name = "Josephus 17.9.3">Josephus, Flavius. ~AD 93. Antiquities of the Jews. Book 17, chapter 9, paragraph 3 (17.9.3) Bible Study Tools website. First sentence of paragraph 3 reads: "Now, upon the approach of that feast ..." Retrieved on March 16, 2016.</ref><ref name = "Josephus WAR 2.1.3">Josephus, Flavius. ~93 AD. The War of the Jews. Book 2, chapter 1, paragraph 3 (2.1.3) Bible Study Tools website. About one-third through paragraph three it reads: "And indeed, at the feast ...". Retrieved on March 16, 2016.</ref> Some scholars suggested dates in 5 BC, because it allows seven months for the events Josephus documented between the lunar eclipse and the Passover rather than the 29 days allowed by lunar eclipse in 4 BC.<ref name="Herod4BC">Timothy David Barnes, "The Date of Herod’s Death," Journal of Theological Studies ns 19 (1968), 204–19.
P. M. Bernegger, "Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.," Journal of Theological Studies ns 34 (1983), 526–31.</ref><ref name = "Finegan Handbook 300 1998">Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998. p. 300. Template:ISBN</ref> Others suggest it was an eclipse in 1 BC.<ref name = "Steinmann Abraham 219-256">Andrew Steinmann, From Abraham to Paul: A Biblical Chronology. (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Pub. House, 2011), Print. pp. 219–56.</ref><ref name = "Filmer Chronology 283-298">W.E. Filmer, "The Chronology of the Reign of Herod the Great". The Journal of Theological Studies, 1966. 17(2): pp. 283–98.</ref><ref name = "Finegan Handbook 238-278">Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998, 2015. pp. 238–79.</ref> The narrative implies that Jesus was born sometime between the first appearance of the star and the appearance of the Magi at Herod's court. That the king is said to have ordered the execution of boys two years of age and younger implies that the Star of Bethlehem appeared within the preceding two years. Some scholars date the birth of Jesus as 6–4 BC,<ref name="BritJesus">Template:Cite book</ref> while others suggest Jesus' birth was in 3–2 BC.<ref name="Steinmann Abraham 219-256"/><ref name="Filmer Chronology 283-298"/>
The Gospel of Luke says the census from Caesar Augustus took place when Quirinius was governor of Syria.<ref name="Luke 2:2 parallel Bible Hub">Luke 2:2 Luke chapter 2 verse in parallel translations on Bible Hub. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref> Tipler suggests this took place in AD 6, nine years after the death of Herod, and that the family of Jesus left Bethlehem shortly after the birth.<ref name=tipler/> Some scholars explain the apparent disparity as an error on the part of the author of the Gospel of Luke,<ref>Ralph Martin Novak, Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts (Continuum International, 2001), p. 293.</ref><ref>Raymond E. Brown, Christ in the Gospels of the Liturgical Year, (Liturgical Press, 2008), p. 114. See, for example, James Douglas Grant Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) p. 344. Similarly, Erich S. Gruen, 'The expansion of the empire under Augustus', in The Cambridge ancient history Volume 10, p. 157, Geza Vermes, The Nativity, Penguin 2006, p. 96, W. D. Davies and E. P. Sanders, 'Jesus from the Jewish point of view', in The Cambridge History of Judaism ed William Horbury, vol 3: the Early Roman Period, 1984, Anthony Harvey, A Companion to the New Testament (Cambridge University Press 2004), p. 221, Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. Doubleday, 1991, v. 1, p. 213, Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977, p. 554, A. N. Sherwin-White, pp. 166–67, Template:Cite conference repr. in Template:Cite journal</ref> concluding that he was more concerned with creating a symbolic narrative than a historical account,<ref>Marcus J. Borg, Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart of Contemporary Faith, (HarperCollins, 1993), p. 24.</ref> and was either unaware of, or indifferent to, the chronological difficulty.<ref>Elias Joseph Bickerman, Studies in Jewish and Christian History, p. 104.</ref>
However, there is some debate among Bible translators about the correct reading of Luke 2:2 (Template:Lang).<ref name="Luke 2:2 Bible Hub commentaries">Luke 2:2 commentaries on Bible Hub. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref> Instead of translating the registration as taking place "when" Quirinius was governor of Syria, some versions translate it as "before"<ref name = "Wright Bible Luke 2:2">Wright, N. T. 2011. The Kingdom New Testament: A Contemporary Translation. Luke 2:2. New York, HarperOne. Template:ISBN</ref><ref name = "Luke 2:2 Biblegateway OJB">Luke 2:2 in the Orthodox Jewish Bible (OJB) on BibleGateway. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref> or use "before" as an alternative,<ref name="Luke 2:2 Biblegateway NIV">Luke 2:2 in the New International Version NIV) Bible on BibleGateway. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref><ref name = "Luke 2:2 Biblegateway ESV">Luke 2:2 in the English Standard Version (ESV) Bible on BibleGateway. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref><ref name="Luke 2:2 Biblegateway HSCB">Luke 2:2 in Holman Christian Standard Bible (HSCB) on BibleGateway. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref> which Harold Hoehner, F.F. Bruce, Ben Witherington and others have suggested may be the correct translation.<ref>Brindle, Wayne. "The Census And Quirinius: Luke 2:2." JETS 27/1 (March 1984) 43–52. Other scholars cited in Brindle's article include A. Higgins, N. Turner, P. Barnett, I. H. Marshall and C. Evan.</ref> While not in agreement, Emil Schürer also acknowledged that such a translation can be justified grammatically.<ref>Emil Schürer, Géza Vermès, and Fergus Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.–A.D. 135), (Edinburgh: Clark, 1973 and 1987), 421.</ref> According to Josephus, the tax census conducted by the Roman senator Quirinius particularly irritated the Jews, and was one of the causes of the Zealot movement of armed resistance to Rome.<ref name = "Josephus 18.1.1">Josephus, Flavius. ~93 AD. Antiquities of the Jews. Book 18, chapter 1, paragraph 1 (hereafter noted as 18.1.1) Entire book free to read online. Bible Study Tools website. Scroll down from 18.1.1 to find Jewish revolt also mentioned in 18.1.6. Retrieved on March 3, 2016.</ref> From this perspective, Luke may have been trying to differentiate the census at the time of Jesus' birth from the tax census mentioned in Acts 5:37<ref name = "Acts 5:37 on Bible Hub">Acts of the Apostles, chapter 5, verse 2 with commentaries. Bible Hub. Retrieved on March 16, 2016.</ref> that took place under Quirinius at a later time.<ref name = "Vincent's Luke 2">Vincent, Marvin R. Vincent's Word Studies. Luke chapter 2, verse 2. Bible Hub. Retrieved on March 16, 2016.</ref> One ancient writer identified the census at Jesus' birth, not with taxes, but with a universal pledge of allegiance to the emperor.<ref>Paulus Orosius, Historiae Adversus Paganos, VI.22.7 and VII.2.16.</ref>
Jack Finegan noted some early writers' reckoning of the regnal years of Augustus are the equivalent to 3/2 BC, or 2 BC or later for the birth of Jesus, including Irenaeus (3/2 BC), Clement of Alexandria (3/2 BC), Tertullian (3/2 BC), Julius Africanus (3/2 BC), Hippolytus of Rome (3/2 BC), Hippolytus of Thebes (3/2 BC), Origen (3/2 BC), Eusebius of Caesarea (3/2 BC), Epiphanius of Salamis (3/2 BC), Cassiodorus Senator (3 BC), Paulus Orosius (2 BC), Dionysus Exiguus (1 BC), and Chronographer of the Year 354 (AD 1).<ref name = "Finegan Handbook 279-292">Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998. pp. 279–92.</ref> Finegan places the death of Herod in 1 BC, and says if Jesus was born two years or less before Herod the Great died, the birth of Jesus would have been in 3 or 2 BC.<ref name = "Finegan Handbook page 301">Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998. p. 301.</ref> Finegan also notes the Alogi reckoned Jesus's birth with the equivalent of 4 BC or AD 9.<ref name = "Finegan Handbook 289-290">Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998. pp. 289–90.</ref>
Religious interpretations
Catholicism
The Catholic Church has no say on the Star of Bethlehem, except that it led the Magi to Jesus.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church 528</ref> Various theologians have speculated on the star's nature: star, angel, light, person, bird, illusion, hallucination, natural phenomenon, etc.<ref>Catholic Answers, What Was The Star Of Bethlehem?</ref>
Eastern Orthodoxy
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Star of Bethlehem is interpreted as a miraculous event of symbolic and pedagogical significance, regardless of whether it coincides with a natural phenomenon; a sign sent by God to lead the Magi to the Christ Child.Template:Citation needed This is illustrated in the Troparion of the Nativity:
In Orthodox Christian iconography, the Star of Bethlehem is often depicted not as golden, but as a dark aureola, a semicircle at the top of the icon, indicating the Uncreated Light of Divine grace, with a ray pointing to "the place where the young child lay" (Matthew 2:9).<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> Sometimes the faint image of an angel is drawn inside the aureola.
Simon the Athonite founded the monastery of Simonopetra on Mount Athos after seeing a star he identified with the Star of Bethlehem.<ref>Venerable Simon the Myrrh-gusher of Mt Athos at oca.org, accessed 31 October 2017.</ref>
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
LDS members believe that the Star of Bethlehem was an actual astronomical event visible the world over.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the 1830 Book of Mormon, which they believe contains writings of ancient prophets, Samuel the Lamanite prophesies that a new star will appear as a sign that Jesus has been born, and Nephi later writes about the fulfillment of this prophecy.<ref>Template:Lds; Template:Lds</ref>
Jehovah's Witnesses
Members of Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the "star" was a vision or sign created by Satan, rather than a sign from God. This is because it led the pagan astrologers first to Jerusalem where King Herod consequently found out about the birth of the "king of the Jews", with the result that he attempted to have Jesus killed.<ref>Jesus – The Way, the Truth, the Life, ch. 7: Astrologers Visit Jesus</ref>
Seventh-day Adventist
In her 1898 book, The Desire of Ages, Ellen White states "That star was a distant company of shining angels, but of this the wise men were ignorant."<ref>The Desire of Ages, p. 60 Template:Webarchive.</ref>
Depiction in art
Paintings and other pictures of the Adoration of the Magi may include a depiction of the star in some form. In the fresco by Giotto di Bondone, it is depicted as a comet. In the tapestry of the subject designed by Edward Burne-Jones (and in the related watercolour), the star is held by an angel.
The colourful star lantern known as a Template:Lang is a cherished and ubiquitous symbol of Christmas for Filipinos, its design and light recalling the star. In its basic form, the Template:Lang has five points and two "tails" that evoke rays of light pointing the way to the baby Jesus, and candles inside the lanterns have been superseded by electric illumination.
In the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, a silver star with 14 undulating rays marks the location traditionally claimed to be that of Jesus' birth.
In European textiles a common eight-pointed star design is known as the Holy Star of Bethlehem. The design has been used in stone, metal, wood-work and embroidery in the Middle East since antiquity and is one of the oldest patterns in patterns in Palestinian tatreez.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 2019 US congresswoman Rashida Tlaib was sworn in wearing a thobe that featured the design.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On Vogue Arabia's November 2023 cover the star took a central position in the celebration of Palestinian embroidery.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The design also features on Christmas sweaters.
See also
- Caesar's Comet
- Star of DavidTemplate:Dashthe Jewish symbol of King David, which the Star of Bethlehem is often associated with having been a miraculous appearance of.
- RCW 103
- Flag of NagalandTemplate:Dashwhere the Star of Bethlehem is a symbol of the Christian identity of the Naga people
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
- Case, Shirley Jackson (2006). Jesus: A New Biography, Gorgias Press LLC: New Ed. Template:ISBN.
- Coates, Richard (2008) 'A linguist's angle on the Star of Bethlehem', Astronomy and Geophysics, 49, pp. 27–49
- Consolmagno S.J., Guy (2010) Looking for a star or Coming to Adore?
- Gill, Victoria: Star of Bethlehem: the astronomical explanations and Reading the Stars by Helen Jacobus with link to, Jacobus, Helen, Ancient astrology: how sages read the heavens/ Did the heavens predict a king?, BBC
- Jenkins, R.M., "The Star of Bethlehem and the Comet of 66AD Template:Webarchive", Journal of the British Astronomy Association, June 2004, 114, pp. 336–43. This article argues that the Star of Bethlehem is a historical fiction influenced by the appearance of Halley's Comet in AD 66.
- Larson, Frederick A. What Was the Star?
- Nicholl, Colin R., The Great Christ Comet: Revealing the True Star of Bethlehem Template:Webarchive. Crossway, 2015. Template:ISBN
- Star of Bethlehem Bibliography. Provides an extensive bibliography with Web links to online sources.
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