State of Vietnam
Template:Pp Template:Short description Template:About Template:Infobox former country The State of Vietnam (Template:Langx; chữ Hán: 國家越南; Template:Langx) was a state in Southeast Asia that existed from 1949 until 1955, first as an associated state of the French Union and later as an independent state (from 20 July 1954 to 26 October 1955). The state claimed authority over all of Vietnam during the First Indochina War, although large parts of its remote territory were controlled by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
The State of Vietnam was formed in 1949 within the framework of the French Union as a compromise between Vietnamese nationalists and the French, in opposition to the communists.<ref>Hammer, Ellen J. "The Bao Dai Experiment". Pacific Affairs, vol. 23, no. 1, Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia, 1950, p. 55, {{#invoke:CS1 identifiers|main|_template=doi}}.</ref>Template:Sfn It gained international recognition in 1950 and aligned politically with the Western Bloc. Former emperor Bảo Đại became Chief of State. Following the 1954 Geneva Accords between the communist Viet Minh and the French, the State of Vietnam lost its remaining foothold in the northern half of the country, where most rural areas were already controlled by the Viet Minh.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Ngô Đình Diệm was appointed prime minister the same year and—after having ousted Bảo Đại in 1955—became president of the Republic of Vietnam.
History
Vietnam after the World War II
Template:See also The 16th parallel was established by the Allies on August 2, 1945, following the Potsdam Conference, dividing the former French Indochina into two military zones: Chinese Nationalist forces occupied the North, and British forces the South, to disarm Japanese troops.<ref name="HD 16th">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The communist-led Viet Minh launched the August Revolution to seek control in Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).
Beginning in August 1945, the Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamese nationalist groups and Trotskyist activists.<ref name="Guillemot 2004">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On September 23, the British supported a French coup de force that overthrew the DRV government in Saigon and attempted to reinstate French control over southern Indochina.<ref name="23 Sept">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In 1946, the Franco-Chinese and Ho–Sainteny Agreements enabled French forces to replace the Chinese north of the 16th parallel and facilitated a coexistence between the DRV and the French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn That summer, the Viet Minh colluded with French forces to eliminate nationalists, targeted for their ardent anti-colonialism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="Guillemot 2004"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Tran 2023">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp
With most of the nationalist partisans defeated,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and negotiations broken down, tensions between the Viet Minh and French authorities erupted into full-scale war in December 1946,Template:Sfn a conflict which became entwined with the Cold War. Surviving nationalist partisans and politico-religious groups rallied behind the exiled Bảo Đại to reopen negotiations with France in opposition to communist domination.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
On June 5, 1948, the Halong Bay Agreements (Accords de la baie d’Along) allowed the foundation of a unified Vietnamese government replacing the governments of Tonkin (North Vietnam) and Annam (Middle Vietnam) associated to France within the French Union. The Associated States of Indochina then also included the neighboring Kingdom of Laos and Kingdom of Cambodia. Cochinchina (South Vietnam), however, had a different status, both as a colony and as an autonomous republic, and its reunification with the rest of Vietnam had to be approved by its local assembly, and then by the French National Assembly. During the transitional period, a Provisional Central Government of Vietnam was proclaimed: Nguyễn Văn Xuân, until then head of the Provisional Government of South Vietnam (as Cochinchina had been known since 1947), became its president, while Bảo Đại waited for a complete reunification to take office.
Associated State (1949–1954)
On May 20, 1949, the French National Assembly approved the reunification of Cochinchina with the rest of Vietnam. The decision took effect on June 14 and the State of Vietnam (SVN) was officially proclaimed on July 2. From 1949 to 1954, the State of Vietnam had partial autonomy from France as an associated state within the French Union.
Bảo Đại and Hồ Chí Minh competed for international and domestic recognition as the legitimate authority over Vietnam. While the State of Vietnam aligned with the anticommunist Western Bloc, the French exploited it to extend their colonial presence and to bolster their standing within NATO.Template:Sfn The State of Vietnam received its strongest support from the United States<ref name="Aid A">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> while Hồ's DRV was backed by the People's Republic of China<ref name="Aid C">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> and the Soviet Union<ref name="Aid S">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> (since 1950).
Roughly 60% of Vietnamese territory was under the DRV control in 1952.<ref>Pierre Montagnon, L'Indochine française, Tallandier, 2016, p. 325</ref> However, most delta and urban areas with large populations were brought under the control of the SVN.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Frustrated with the communist-led Viet Minh becoming increasingly radicalized, many people left its maquis and returned to the cities, a process known in Vietnamese as dinh tê.<ref name="Vu 2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp Thousands among them came to support the State of Vietnam.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
Following the onset of full-scale war between the Viet Minh and France in December 1946, there emerged nationalists who pursued the quest for a ‘Third Force’ that would be both anticommunist and anticolonialist. This stance led them to maintain an uneasy neutrality in the conflict, and they were at times labeled as attentistes,<ref name="Miller 2004" />Template:Rp including Ngô Đình Diệm and certain Đại Việt politicians. With the internationalization of the war in 1950, many of these figures ultimately stepped off the fence and entered the political fray.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
The State of Vietnam was not merely a colonial construct, but a fragmented and negotiated state in which sovereignty was unevenly exercised by colonial authorities, local political actors, and religious self-governing entities. Its state transformation was an act of bricolage, cobbled together from layered legacies of the past and evolving contemporary dynamics.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Matignon Treaty on 4 June 1954<ref>"Vietnam: Traité d'indépendance du 4 juin 1954", Digithèque MJP.</ref> was seen as granting Vietnam independence from France.<ref name="PP A5"/>Template:Rp The prominent nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem, who by now no longer believed that attentisme was a viable policy, was appointed by Bảo Đại in June 1954 to lead the Vietnamese government.<ref name="Miller 2004">Template:Cite journal</ref> With the full support of Bảo Đại, Diệm committed himself to rapidly establishing a truly independent state, and formally withdrew the State of Vietnam from the French Union on July 20, 1954.Template:Sfn
Partition (1954–55)
Template:Further The Geneva Accords, signed between the French and the Viet Minh on 21 July 1954, ended the Indochina War by establishing a temporary division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with the DRV in the North and the State of Vietnam in the South, pending nationwide elections scheduled for July 1956.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Communist forces entered Hanoi on 10 October 1954, replacing the French Union forces that were withdrawing South. During the 300-day period of relocation, around 120,000 Viet Minh personnel moved North. Meanwhile, at least 500,000 Catholics, about 200,000 Buddhists, and tens of thousands from minority groups moved South, many via Operation Passage to Freedom.Template:Sfn
The State of Vietnam<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and the United States were firmly opposed to the final settlement at Geneva and the partition of Vietnam.<ref name="PP A5">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Rp In July 1955, Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem announced in a broadcast that South Vietnam would not participate in the elections specified in the Geneva Accords, as they had not signed the agreement and therefore were not bound by it.<ref name="cđcn">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Cheng1997p11">Template:Cite book</ref>
Politics
Provisional Central Government of Vietnam
On May 27, 1948, Nguyễn Văn Xuân, then President of the Republic of Cochinchina, became President of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam (Thủ tướng lâm thời) following the merging of the government of Cochin China and Vietnam in what is sometimes referred as "Pre-Vietnam".
State of Vietnam
On June 14, 1949, Bảo Đại was appointed Chief of State (Quốc trưởng) of the State of Vietnam; he was concurrently Prime Minister for a short while (Kiêm nhiệm Thủ tướng).
On October 26, 1955, the Republic of Vietnam was established and Ngô Đình Diệm became the first President of the Republic.
Leaders
| Name | Took office | Left office | Title | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nguyễn Văn Xuân | May 27, 1948 | July 1, 1949 | President of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam | |
| 1 | Bảo Đại | July 1, 1949<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | January 21, 1950 | Prime Minister; remained Chief of State throughout the State of Vietnam |
| 2 | Nguyễn Phan Long | January 21, 1950 | April 27, 1950 | Prime Minister |
| 3 | Trần Văn Hữu | May 6, 1950 | June 3, 1952 | Prime Minister |
| 4 | Nguyễn Văn Tâm | June 23, 1952 | December 7, 1953 | Prime Minister |
| 5 | Bửu Lộc | January 11, 1954 | July 7, 1954 | Prime Minister |
| 6 | Ngô Đình Diệm | July 7, 1954 | October 26, 1955 | Prime Minister |
1955 referendum, Republic of Vietnam
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In South Vietnam, a referendum was scheduled for 23 October 1955 to determine the future direction of the south, in which the people would choose Diệm or Bảo Đại as the leader of South Vietnam.<ref>Moyar, p. 54.</ref> During the election, Diệm's brother Ngô Đình Nhu and the Personalist Labor Revolutionary Party (commonly known as "Cần Lao Party") supplied Diệm's electoral base in organizing and supervising the elections, especially the propaganda campaign for destroying Bảo Đại's reputation. Supporters of Bảo Đại were not allowed to campaign, and were physically attacked by Nhu's workers.<ref name="karnow55"/> Official results showed 98.2 per cent of voters favoured Diệm, an implausibly high result that was condemned as fraudulent. The total number of votes far exceeded the number of registered voters by over 380,000, further evidence that the referendum was heavily rigged.<ref name="karnow55">Karnow, pp. 223–24</ref><ref name="jacobs">Jacobs, p. 95.</ref> For example, only 450,000 voters were registered in Saigon, but 605,025 were said to have voted for Diệm. On 26 October, Diệm proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam—widely known as South Vietnam—whose reformed army, with American assistance, pursued the conflict with North Vietnam; the Viet Cong replaced the Viet Minh, in the Vietnam War.<ref name=jacobs/>
Military
Vietnamese National Army
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Following the signing of the 1949 Élysée Accords in Paris, Bảo Đại was able to create a National Army for defense purposes.
It fought under the State of Vietnam's banner and leadership and was commanded by General Nguyễn Văn Hinh.
Economy
Currency
The currency used within the French Union was the French Indochinese piastre. Notes were issued and managed by the "Issue Institute of the States of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam" (Institut d’Emission des Etats du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-Nam). In 1953, Vietnam introduced its own currency.
Foreign relations
By 1950, a number of countries recognized the State of Vietnam:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Template:Columns-list
Membership in international organizations
On 21 October 1949, the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, having considered the applications of both the State of Vietnam and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, accepted the SVN as an associate member.<ref>"Admission of the State of Viet-Nam as an associate member of the Commission: Resolution of 21 October 1949 (E/CN.11/232 Rev. 1)". In "E/CN.11/RES/81 (V), UN Official Documents", 23/05/1950.</ref> As of 1952, while applying for United Nations membership, the State of Vietnam was a member of the following organizations:<ref>"Memorandum, Letter dated 7 August 1952 from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Vietnam addressed to the Secretary-General." In "A/2168, UN Official Documents", 03/09/1952.</ref>
- Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East
- World Health Organization
- International Labour Organization
- United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
- International Telecommunication Union
- Universal Postal Union
- International Office of Epizootics
Administrative divisions
Three principal regions
Template:See also Following the creation of the State of Vietnam and the establishment of its government, the Chief of State Bảo Đại signed the two ordinances related to the administration and local governance of the State of Vietnam, namely Ordinance No. 1 ("Organisation and Operation of civil authorities in Vietnam") and Ordinance No. 2 ("Statutes of Government office").<ref name="Mocban-State-of-Vietnam-administrative-divisions">Template:Cite web</ref> These ordinances divided the State of Vietnam into three principal administrative regions, namely Bắc Việt (former Tonkin), Trung Việt (former Annam), and Nam Việt (former Cochinchina), the local government of each administrative region was headed by a Thủ hiến (Governour).<ref name="Mocban-State-of-Vietnam-administrative-divisions"/> Since 1948, the three regions had also been referred to as Bắc Phần, Trung Phần, and Nam Phần.
On 4 August 1954 the government of the State of Vietnam enacted Ordinance No. 21 which abolished the autonomous status of the three regions and abolished the post of regional governour, replacing them with central government representatives in all parts of its territory.<ref name="Mocban-State-of-Vietnam-administrative-divisions"/>
Domain of the Crown
Template:History of Vietnam The Domain of the Crown (Template:Vie; French: Domaine de la Couronne) was originally the Nguyễn dynasty's geopolitical concept for its protectorates and principalities where the Kinh ethnic group didn't make up the majority, later it became a type of administrative unit of the State of Vietnam.<ref name="Anh-Thái-Phượng">Anh Thái Phượng. Trăm núi ngàn sông: Tập I. Gretna, LA: Đường Việt Hải ngoại, 2003. Page: 99. (in Vietnamese).</ref> It was officially established on 15 April 1950 and dissolved on 11 March 1955.<ref name="Anh-Thái-Phượng"/> In the areas of the Domain of the Crown Chief of State Bảo Đại was still officially (and legally) titled as the "Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty".<ref name="Lê-Đình-Chi">Lê Đình Chi. Người Thượng Miền Nam Việt Nam. Gardena, California: Văn Mới, 2006. Pages: 401-449. (in Vietnamese).</ref>
The Domain of the Crown contained the following five provinces established from the former Montagnard country of South Indochina:<ref name="Lê-Đình-Chi"/><ref name="Nhân-Dân-Hoàng-triều-Cương-thổ-2020-1">Template:Cite web</ref>
In Bắc phần it contained the following provinces:<ref name="Lê-Đình-Chi"/><ref name="Nhân-Dân-Hoàng-triều-Cương-thổ-2020-1"/>
- Hòa Bình (Mường Autonomous Territory)
- Phong Thổ (Thái Autonomous Territory)
- Lai Châu (Thái Autonomous Territory)
- Sơn La (Thái Autonomous Territory)
- Lào Kay (Mèo Autonomous Territory)
- Hà Giang (Mèo Autonomous Territory)
- Bắc Kạn (Thổ Autonomous Territory)
- Cao Bằng (Thổ Autonomous Territory)
- Lạng Sơn (Thổ Autonomous Territory)
- Hải Ninh (Nùng Autonomous Territory)
- Móng Cái (Nùng Autonomous Territory)
See also
- Vietnamese nationalism
- First Indochina War
- Cold War in Asia
- History of Vietnam
- Vietnamese National Army
References
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Bibliography
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External links
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- Nu-Anh Tran’s Collection – "Series A: Political visions before 1954"