Tamarind

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia.<ref name="Morton">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="El-Siddig">Template:Cite book </ref> The genus Tamarindus is monotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the family Fabaceae.

The tamarind tree produces brown, pod-like fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world.<ref name=Morton/> The pulp is also used in traditional medicine and as a dye.<ref name=Morton/> The wood can be used for woodworking, and tamarind seed oil can be extracted from the seeds. Its young leaves are used in Indian and Filipino cuisine.<ref name=Morton/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Because tamarind has multiple uses, it is cultivated worldwide in tropical and subtropical zones.<ref name=Morton/>

Description

The tamarind is a long-living, medium-growth tree, which attains a maximum crown height of Template:Convert.<ref name=Morton/> The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of dense foliage up to Template:Cvt wide.<ref name=Morton/> A tamarind trunk may grow to a circumference of Template:Cvt.<ref name=Morton/> The tree grows well in full sun. It prefers clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with a high resistance to drought and wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas.<ref name=Morton/>

The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and paripinnately compound. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular, pinnately veined, and less than Template:Convert in length.<ref name=Morton/> The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures, and are often pruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest.<ref name=Morton/>

As a tropical species, it is frost-sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood.<ref name=Morton/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The tamarind flowers bloom (although inconspicuously), with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks.<ref name=Morton/> Buds are pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

• 
  Seedling
• 
  Flower
• 
  Flowers
• 
  Leaves and fruit pod
• 
  Tamarind tree on the site of the founding of Santa Clara, Cuba

Fruit

Philippine sampalok

The fruit is an indehiscent pod, Template:Cvt in length, with a hard, brown shell.<ref name=Morton/><ref name="Doughari">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="UF_FactSheet">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="FloriData">Template:Cite web</ref>

The fruit has a fleshy, acidic pulp, becoming mature when the flesh is colored brown or reddish brown.<ref name=Morton/> The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is sweet and sour in taste.<ref name=Morton/> A mature tree may produce up to Template:Cvt of fruit each year.<ref name=Morton/>

History

Etymology

The name derives from Template:Langx, romanized tamr hindi, "Indian date".<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Several early medieval herbalists and physicians wrote tamar indi, medieval Latin use was tamarindus, and Marco Polo wrote of tamarandi.

In Colombia, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called tamarindo. In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or agua de tamarindo). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called tamón.Template:Cn

Countries in Southeast Asia like Indonesia call it asam jawa (Javanese sour fruit) or simply asam,<ref name="Heyne">Template:Cite book</ref> and sukaer in Timor.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> While in the Philippines, it is called sampalok or sampaloc in Filipino, and sambag in Cebuano.<ref name="Polistico">Template:Cite book</ref> Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is sometimes confused with "Manila tamarind" (Pithecellobium dulce). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as guamúchili.

Distribution

Tamarindus indica is indigenous to tropical Africa,<ref name=Morton/><ref name="Diallo">Template:Cite journal</ref> but has been cultivated for so long on the Indian subcontinent that it is sometimes reported to be indigenous there.<ref name="Morton" /> It grows wild in Africa. In Arabia, it is found growing wild in Oman, especially Dhofar, where it grows on the sea-facing slopes of mountains. It reached South Asia likely through human transportation and cultivation several thousand years ago.<ref name=Morton/><ref name="Popenoe">Template:Cite book</ref> It is widely distributed throughout the tropics,<ref name="Morton" /> from Africa to South Asia. In Madagascar, its fruit and leaves are a well-known favorite of the ring-tailed lemur, providing as much as 50 percent of their food resources during the year if available.<ref name="WPRC">Template:Cite web</ref>

In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine.<ref name="Tamale">Template:Cite book</ref>

Uses

Template:Nutritional value Most parts of the tamarind tree (including the wood, bark, flowers, leaves, pulp and seeds) have various environmental, commercial, and culinary uses.<ref name=Morton/> Tamarind trees are used as shade trees and ornamental trees (common along highways and in parks).<ref name=Morton/>

Nutrition

Raw tamarind fruit is 63% carbohydrates, 31% water, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a reference amount of Template:Cvt, raw tamarind supplies Template:Convert of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of thiamine (36% DV) and dietary minerals, including magnesium and potassium at 22% and 21% DV, respectively (table).

Culinary

Tamarind paste

Tamarind balls

The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk.<ref name=Morton/> The hard green pulp of a young fruit is used in savory dishes, as a pickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonous yams in Ghana safe for human consumption.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> As the fruit matures, it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic). The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet tamarind ones have almost no acidity when ripe.Template:Cn

Tamarind pulp is the most common part of the tamarind plant used in chutneys, curries, and sauces, such as Worcestershire sauce,<ref name="BBCrecipes">Template:Cite web</ref> HP Sauce, some brands of barbecue sauce,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the traditional sharbat syrup drink.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Tamarind sweet chutney is common in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks and often served with samosa.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Across the Middle East, from the Levant to Iran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang.<ref>"Tamarind is the 'sour secret of Syrian cooking'". PRI. July 2014</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> During Ramadan, tamarind is used to prepare a traditional beverage known as "tamr-hindi," which is particularly popular in the Levant region. The drink is made by boiling tamarind paste in water, sweetening it with sugar, and then straining the mixture. In some variations, rosewater and lemon juice are added to enhance its flavor. Street vendors play a significant role in distributing this beverage, carrying large copper pots filled with the juice on their backs. They typically arrange numerous cups around their waist to conveniently serve the drink to passersby in the streets.<ref>Ramadan: Five thirst-quenching drinks from across the Middle East, Nur Ayoubi, 4 April 2022, Middle East Eye</ref>

Tamarind has been integrated into kosher and Jewish cuisine across several diasporas, beginning with its introduction to the Middle East via Jewish merchants on the Silk Road in the 7th century. Syrian Jews prepare tamarind syrup, known as ou or ouc, by soaking, straining, and boiling the fruit pulp with sugar and lemon, using it in dishes such as yebra (stuffed grape leaves), bazargan (bulgur salad), keftes (sweet-sour meatballs), and laham b'ajeen (meat flatbread). In India, Baghdadi, Cochin, and Bene Israel Jews use tamarind in regional recipes like bamia khutta, mahmoora, tamarind rice, and lamb with red chilies. Syrian Jewish communities in Mexico have adapted tamarind-based dishes with local ingredients, exemplified by chicken with tamarind, apricots, and chipotle. In contemporary Israel, tamarind juice has gained popularity beyond traditional communities, aided by commercial offerings like Prigat's seasonal releases during Ramadan.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Unreliable source?<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Unreliable source?

In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as one of the souring agents of the sour soup sinigang (which can also use other sour fruits), as well as another type of soup called sinampalukan (which uses tamarind leaves).<ref name="Fernandez">Template:Cite book</ref> The fruit pulp is cooked in sugar and salt to make champóy na sampalok (or simply "sampalok candy"), a traditional tamarind candy.<ref name="tl">Template:Cite web</ref> Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind-based soup dish called sayur asem.Template:Cn

In Sri Lanka, tamarind pulp has been used as a lime alternative, and in Senegal, the pulp is mixed with sugar to produce sweet meats known as 'bengal'.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> In India, tamarind pulp is made into a juice used in the preservation of fish, and in many countries of East Africa, the pulp is used in the making of a dish called ugali (a type of maize flour porridge).<ref name=":441" />

Tamarind seeds need to be soaked and boiled in water before they are edible.<ref name=":413">Template:Cite journal</ref> The seeds are commonly used in jellies, marmalades and jams because they contain pectin which gives them jelly-forming properties, and have been used as a stabilizer to make cheese, ice cream and mayonnaise.<ref name="El-Siddig" /><ref name=Morton/> In Indonesia, after the seeds have been roasted, they are consumed as a snack accompanied with salt and grated coconut and in Thailand tamarind seeds are used as a coffee alternative.<ref name=Morton/>

The leaves and bark are also edible, and the seeds can be cooked to make safe for consumption.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Blanched, tender tamarind leaves are used in a Burmese salad called magyi ywet thoke (Template:Lit), a salad from Upper Myanmar that features tender blanched tamarind leaves, garlic, onions, roasted peanuts, and pounded dried shrimp.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Tamarind seeds contain high levels of protein (26.9 grams per 100 grams) and oil (10.9 grams per 100 grams) and in some countries, tamarind seeds are used as an emergency food because of their high protein levels.<ref name="El-Siddig" /><ref name=":441">Template:Citation</ref> The leaves of the tamarind plant are high in calcium and protein and have been consumed by domestic animals and wild animals, including elephants, as a fodder.<ref name="El-Siddig" />

Seed oil and kernel powder

Tamarind seed oil is made from the kernel of tamarind seeds.<ref>Tamarind Seeds Template:Webarchive. agriculturalproductsindia.com</ref> The kernel is difficult to isolate from its thin but tough shell (or testa). It has a similar consistency to linseed oil, and can be used to make paint or varnish.<ref>Template:Usurped</ref>

Tamarind kernel powder is used as sizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives.<ref name=Morton/>

Tamarind seeds are used in the production of tamarind kernel powder which is used as a sizing agent in the textile industry because of its ability to absorb water and swell up, in India, tamarind kernel powder has also been used as a sizing agent in the production of cotton.<ref name=":413" /> In Bengal, tamarind seeds are used in the production of an oil used in varnishes.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> leaves and flowers are used as a setting agent for dyes.<ref name=Morton/><ref name="El-Siddig" />

Template:Nowrap

Composition	Original	De-oiled
Oil	7.6%	0.6%
Protein	7.6%	19.0%
Polysaccharide	51.0%	55.0%
Crude fiber	1.2%	1.1%
Total ash	3.9%	3.4%
Acid insoluble ash	0.4%	0.3%
Moisture	7.1%
The fatty acid composition of the oil is linoleic 46.5%, oleic 27.2%, and saturated fatty acids 26.4%. The oil is usually bleached after refining.

Template:Nowrap

Fatty acid	(%) Range reported
Lauric acid (C12:0)	tr-0.3
Myristic acid (C14:0)	tr-0.4
Palmitic acid (C16:0)	8.7–14.8
Stearic acid (C18:0)	4.4–6.6
Arachidic acid (C20:0)	3.7–12.2
Lignoceric acid (C24:0)	4.0–22.3
Oleic acid (C18:1)	19.6–27.0
Linoleic acid (18:2)	7.5–55.4
Linolenic acid (C18:3)	2.8–5.6

Folk medicine

In Southeast Asia, tamarind fruit is used as a poultice applied to the foreheads of people with fevers.<ref name="Doughari" /> The fruit exhibits laxative effects for relief of constipation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":440">Template:Citation</ref> Extracts of steamed and sun-dried old tamarind pulp (asem kawa) in Java are used to treat skin problems, like rashes and irritation; one traditional practice indicated tamarind could be ingested after dilution for use as an abortifacient.<ref name=Heyne/>

Different parts of the tamarind plant have been used globally for other purposes in folk medicine.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> In the northern parts of Nigeria, the roots of the tamarind plant are thought to be useful for treating leprosy, and in America, tamarind pulp is considered in folk medicine to be a laxative and used for alleviating sunstroke and sore throats.<ref name=":441" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Thailand, the pulp has been transformed into a tablet in the belief it can reduce excess weight, and in Brazil, the pulp is used for its supposed hydrating effects.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> Tamarind seeds have been used in powdered form to possibly aid dysentery in India and Cambodia, and in Ethiopia, softened tamarind seeds are used as a possible treatment for parasitic worms.<ref name="El-Siddig" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Woodworking

Tamarind wood is used to make furniture, boats (as per Rumphius) carvings, turned objects such as mortars and pestles, chopping blocks, and other small specialty wood items like krises.<ref name=Heyne/> Tamarind heartwood is reddish brown, sometimes with a purplish hue. The heartwood in tamarind tends to be narrow and is usually only present in older and larger trees. The pale yellow sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Heartwood is said to be durable to very durable in decay resistance, and is also resistant to insects. Its sapwood is not durable and is prone to attack by insects and fungi as well as spalting. Due to its density and interlocked grain, tamarind is considered difficult to work. Heartwood has a pronounced blunting effect on cutting edges. Tamarind turns, glues, and finishes well. The heartwood is able to take a high natural polish.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Metal polish

In homes and temples, especially in Buddhist Asian countries including Myanmar, the fruit pulp is used to polish brass shrine statues and lamps, and copper, brass, and bronze utensils.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Research

Lupeol, catechins, epicatechin, quercetin, and isorhamnetin are present in the leaf extract.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography analyses revealed that tamarind seeds contained catechins, procyanidin B2, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, chloramphenicol, myricetin, morin, quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Cultivation

Seeds can be scarified or briefly boiled to enhance germination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry.<ref name=Morton/>

Tamarind is a traditional food plant in Africa. Although not grown on a large-scale commercial basis,<ref name="El-Siddig" /> it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable land care.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The tree is widely cultivated across India, especially in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Extensive tamarind orchards in India produced Template:Convert annually in the late 20th century.<ref name=Morton/> It has long been naturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and Pacific Islands.<ref name=Morton/> Thailand has the largest plantations of the ASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is called asam.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In the United States, it is a large-scale crop introduced for commercial use (second in net production quantity only to India), mainly in southern states, notably south Florida, and as a shade tree, along roadsides, in dooryards and in parks.<ref name="UN_FAO">Template:Cite web</ref>

Horticulture

Throughout South Asia and the tropical world, tamarind trees are used as ornamental and garden plantings. Commonly used as a bonsai species in many Asian countries, it is also grown as an indoor bonsai in temperate parts of the world.<ref name="Ma-Ke_Tamarindus indica">Template:Cite web</ref>

In dogs

Tamarind is toxic to dogs. The symptoms – which may include vomiting or diarrhea within 6–12 hours of ingestion, lethargy, dehydration or acute kidney injury – and proposed mechanism (via tartaric acid) are the same as in grape toxicity in dogs.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

External links

• Template:Commons category-inline
• SEA Hand Book-2009: Published by The Solvent Extractors' Association of India
• Tamarindus indica in Brunken, U., Schmidt, M., Dressler, S., Janssen, T., Thiombiano, A. & Zizka, G. 2008. West African plants – A Photo Guide.
• Template:Cite EB1911
• Template:Cite NSRW