Taqiyya

Template:Short description Template:Hatnote group Template:Italic title Template:Use dmy dates Template:Islam Template:Usul al-fiqh In Islam, taqiyya (Template:Langx)<ref name=EI2>R. STROTHMANN, MOKTAR DJEBLI. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "TAKIYYA", vol. 10, p. 134. Quote: "TAKIYYA "prudence, fear" ... denotes dispensing with the ordinances of religion in cases of constraint of preaching.".</ref><ref name="Stewart">Template:Cite journal</ref> is a concept that refers to a Muslim concealing their faith or religious identity to protect themselves from danger.<ref name=EI2/><ref name=ODI>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Although the term stems mainly from discrimination against the minority Shiite tradition, it is also considered a legitimate practice under certain conditions in Sunni sources.<ref name=StewartNYUEssay>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn The practice of concealing one's beliefs has existed since the early days of Islam; early Muslims did so to avoid persecution or violence by non-Muslim governments or individuals.<ref>ibn ʻUmar Taftāzānī, Masʻūd. A Commentary on the Creed of Islam: Saʻd Al-Dīn Al-Taftāzānī on the Creed of Najm Al-Dīn Al-Nasafī. No. 43. Columbia University Press, 1950.</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The use of taqiyya has varied in recent history, especially between Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims. Sunni Muslims gained political supremacy over time and therefore only occasionally found the need to practice taqiyya. On the other hand, Shia Muslims, as well as Sufi Muslims developed taqiyya as a method of self-preservation and protection in hostile environments.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A related term is kitmān (Template:Lit), which has a more specific meaning of dissimulation by silence or omission.<ref name="EI2-syn" /><ref name="Virani47" /> This practice is emphasized in Shi'ism whereby adherents are permitted to conceal their beliefs when under threat of persecution or compulsion.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="Momen183" />

Template:Transliteration was initially practiced under duress by some of Muhammad's companions.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Later, it became important for Sufis, but even more so for Shias, who often experienced persecution as a religious minority.<ref name="Momen183">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>R. Strothmann-[Moktar Djebli]. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Taḳiyya", Vol. 10, p. 135. Quote: "Taḳiyya is above all of special significance for the Shī'a ... The peculiar fate of the Shī'a, that of a suppressed minority with occasional open but not always unheroic rebellions, gave them even more than the Khāridjites occasions and examples for extreme taḳiyya and its very opposite"</ref> In Shia theology, Template:Transliteration is permissible in situations where life or property are at risk and whereby no danger to religion would occur.<ref name="Momen183" /> Template:Transliteration has also been politically legitimised in Twelver Shi'ism, to maintain unity among Muslims and fraternity among Shia clerics.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Etymology and related terms

Taqiyya

The term taqiyya is derived from the Arabic triliteral root wāw-qāf-yā denoting "caution, fear",<ref name=EI2/> "prudence, guarding against (a danger)",<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> "carefulness, wariness".<ref>Muslim-Jewish encounters by Nettler</ref> In the sense of "prudence, fear" it can be used synonymously with the terms tuqa(n), tuqāt, taqwá, and ittiqāʾ, which are derived from the same root.<ref name=EI2-syn>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> These terms also have other meanings. For example, the term taqwá generally means "piety" (Template:Lit) in an Islamic context.<ref>Lewisohn, L. "Taḳwā (a.)." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman; , Th. Bianquis; , C.E. Bosworth; , E. van Donzel; and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010. Brill Online. University of Toronto. 13 July 2010 [1]Template:Dead link</ref>

Kitmān

A related term is kitmān (Template:Langx), the "action of covering, dissimulation".<ref name=EI2-syn/> While the terms taqiyya and kitmān may be used synonymously, kitmān refers specifically to the concealment of one's convictions by silence or omission.<ref name="Virani47"/> Kitman derives from Arabic katama "to conceal, to hide".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Ibadis used kitmān to conceal their Muslim beliefs in the face of persecution by their enemies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Quranic basis

The technical meaning of the term taqiyya is thoughtTemplate:By whom to be derived from the Quranic reference to religious dissimulation in Sura 3:28: Template:Blockquote The two words tattaqū ("you fear") and tuqāt "in fear" are derived from the same root as taqiyya, and the use of taqiyya about the general principle described in this passage is first recorded in a Qur'anic gloss by Muhammad al-Bukhari in the 9th century.Template:Citation needed

Regarding 3:28, ibn Kathir writes, "meaning, except those believers who in some areas or times fear for their safety from the disbelievers. In this case, such believers are allowed to show friendship to the disbelievers outwardly, but never inwardly." He quotes the Companion of the Prophet Abu al-Darda, who said "we smile in the face of some people although our hearts curse them," and Hasan ibn Ali, who said, "the tuqyah is acceptable till the Day of Resurrection."<ref>Template:Qtaf</ref>

A similar instance of the Qur'an permitting dissimulation under compulsion is found in Template:Qref<ref>Template:Qref "Whoever disbelieves in Allah after their belief—not those who are forced while their hearts are firm in faith, but those who embrace disbelief wholeheartedly—they will be condemned by Allah and suffer a tremendous punishment."</ref> Sunni and Shia commentators alike observe that verse 16:106 refers to the case of 'Ammar b. Yasir, who was forced to renounce his beliefs under physical duress and torture.<ref name=Virani47>Template:Cite book</ref>

Sunni Islam view

The basic principle of taqiyya is agreed upon by scholars, though they tend to restrict it to dealing with non-Muslims and when under compulsion (ikrāh), while Shia jurists also allow it in interactions with Muslims and in all necessary matters (ḍarūriyāt).<ref>Louis Medoff, "TAQIYA i. In Shiʿism," Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2015</ref> In Sunni jurisprudence protecting one's belief during extreme or exigent circumstances is called idtirar (Template:Lang), which translates to "being forced" or "being coerced", and this word is not specific to concealing the faith; for example, under the jurisprudence of idtirar one is allowed to consume prohibited food (e.g. pork) to avoid starving to death.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Additionally, denying one's faith under duress is "only at most permitted and not under all circumstances obligatory".<ref name=STROT>Template:Cite book</ref>

Al-Tabari comments on sura XVI, verse 106 (Tafsir, Bulak 1323, xxiv, 122): "If any one is compelled and professes unbelief with his tongue, while his heart contradicts him, in order to escape his enemies, no blame falls on him, because God takes his servants as their hearts believe." This verse was recorded after Ammar Yasir was forced by the idolaters of Mecca to recant his faith and denounce the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Al-Tabari explains that concealing one's faith is only justified if the person is in mortal danger, and even then martyrdom is considered a noble alternative. If threatened, it would be preferable for a Muslim to migrate to a more peaceful place where a person may practice their faith openly, "since God's earth is wide."<ref name=STROT/> In Hadith, in the Sunni commentary of Sahih al-Bukhari, known as the Fath al-Bari, it is stated that:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Blockquote Which translates to: Template:Blockquote

Al-Ghazali wrote in his The Revival of the Religious Sciences: Template:Blockquote

Ibn Sa'd, in his book al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, narrates on the authority of Ibn Sirin:

Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, in his book al-Ashbah Wa al-Naza'ir, affirms that:

Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, in his book al-Durr al-Manthoor Fi al-Tafsir al- Ma'athoor,<ref>v2, p176</ref> narrates that:

Template:BlockquoteThe practice of taqiyya is not limited to any one sect within Islam. It is observed and referenced in Sunni texts of law, hadith collections, and Quranic exegesis. Although historically more extensively practiced and referenced by Shii Muslims, taqiyya is doctrinally available to Sunni Muslims as well. This challenges the negative notion that taqiyya is exclusively associated with one community or confined to a specific group.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Niyya

In Sunni Islamic law, as in Islamic law in general, the concept of intention (niyya) holds great importance. Merely performing an act without the right intention is considered insufficient. A fatwa issued by Ibn Abi Juma highlights the significance of one's inner state and intention in determining their identity as a Muslim. According to this fatwa, if taqiyya is practiced with the right intention, it is not considered sinful but rather a pious act. The fatwa emphasizes that God values the intention of believers over their outward actions, and taqiyya can be seen as a form of outward expression aligned with the correct intention.<ref name=":1" />

Examples

File:The Moorish Proselytes of Archbishop Ximenes, Granada, 1500.jpg

A 19th-century painting of a mass baptism of Moors in 1500. Muslim clerics permitted them to use taqiyya and become outwardly Christian, to save their lives.

When Mamun became caliph (813 AD), he tried to impose his religious views on the status of the Qur'an over all his subjects, in an ordeal called the mihna, or "inquisition". His views were disputed, and many of those who refused to follow his views were imprisoned, tortured, or threatened with the sword.<ref>Patton, Walter Melville (1897). Ahmed Ibn Hanbal and the Mihna. Leiden: Brill. pp. 79–91.</ref> Some Sunni scholars chose to affirm Mamun's view that the Qur'an was created, in spite of their beliefs,<ref name=Virani47/> though a notable exception to this was scholar and theologian Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who chose to endure torture instead.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Following the end of the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula in 1492, Muslims were persecuted by the Catholic Monarchs and forced to convert to Christianity or face expulsion. The principle of taqiyya became very important for Muslims during the Inquisition in 16th-century Spain, as it allowed them to convert to Christianity while remaining crypto-Muslims, practicing Islam in secret. In 1504, Ubayd Allah al-Wahrani, a Maliki mufti in Oran, issued a fatwā allowing Muslims to make extensive use of concealment to maintain their faith.<ref name="StewartNYUEssay"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Miller2008-114>Template:Cite book</ref> This is seen as an exceptional case, since Islamic law prohibits conversion except in cases of mortal danger, and even then requires recantation as quickly as possible,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and al-Wahrani's reasoning diverged from that of the majority of earlier Maliki Faqīhs such as Al-Wansharisi.<ref name=Miller2008-114 />

Shia Islam view

Minority Shi'a communities, since the earliest days of Islam, were often forced to practice pious circumspection (taqiyya) as an instinctive method of self-preservation and protection, an obligatory practice in the lands which became known as the realm of pious circumspection (dār al-taqiyya). Therefore, the recurring theme is that during times of danger feigning disbelief is allowed.<ref name=":2">Template:Citation</ref>

Two primary aspects of circumspection became central for the Shi'a: not disclosing their association with the Imams when this could put them in danger and protecting the esoteric teachings of the Imams from those who are unprepared to receive them. While in most instances, minority Shi'a communities employed taqiyya using the façade of Sunnism in Sunni-dominated societies, the principle also allows for circumspection as other faiths. For instance, Gupti Ismaili Shi'a communities in the Indian subcontinent circumspect as Hindus to avoid caste persecution. In many cases, the practice of taqiyya became deeply ingrained into practitioners' psyche. If a believer wished, he/she could adopt this practice at moments of danger, or as a lifelong process.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Prudential Taqiyya

Kohlberg has coined the expression "prudential taqiyya" to describe caution due to fear of external enemies. It can be further categorized into two distinct forms: concealment and dissimulation.Template:Cn

For instance, historical accounts narrate how some Imams concealed their identities as a protective measure. In one story, the Imam Jafar al-Sadiq commended the behavior of a follower who chose to avoid direct interaction with the Imam, even though he recognized him on the street, rather than exposing him, and even cursed those who would call him by his name.<ref name=":2" />

Kohlberg identifies the second type of prudential taqiyya as dissimulation, characterized by using deceptive words or actions intended to mislead opponents. It is typically employed by individuals possessing secret information. It is not solely confined to Imami Shi'ism but has been observed among various Muslim individuals or groups with minority views. During times of danger, the recurring theme is that taqiyya permits individuals to utter words of disbelief as a means of self-preservation. Prudential taqiyya is considered essential for safeguarding the faith and may be lifted when the political climate no longer poses a threat. Therefore, one way to discern the motivation behind a specific type of taqiyya is to determine whether it ceases once the danger has subsided.<ref name=":2" />

Non-prudential Taqiyya

Kohlberg coined the expression "non-prudential taqiyya" for when there is a need to conceal secret doctrines from the uninitiated. Non-prudential taqiyya is employed by believers when they possess secret knowledge and are obligated to conceal it from those who have not attained the same level of initiation. This hidden knowledge encompasses diverse aspects, including profound insights into specific Quranic verses, interpretations of the Imam's teachings, and specific religious obligations. The obligation to conceal arises when individuals acquire such exclusive knowledge emphasizing the importance of preserving its secrecy within the initiated community.<ref name=":2" />

Twelver Shia view

If coupled with mental reservation, religious dissimulation is considered lawful in Twelver Shi'ism whenever life or property is at serious risk.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In Twelver theology, Template:Transliteration also refers to hiding or safeguarding the esoteric teachings of Shia imams,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn a practice intended to "protect the truth from those not worthy of it."Template:Sfn This esoteric knowledge (of God), taught by imams to their (true) followers, is said to distinguish them from other Muslims.Template:Sfn

Historically, the Twelver doctrine of Template:Transliteration was developed by Muhammad al-Baqir (Template:Died in), the fifth of the twelve imams,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and later by his successor, Ja'far al-Sadiq (Template:Died in).Template:Sfn At the time, this doctrine was likely intended for the survival of Shia imams and their followers, for they were being brutally molested and persecuted.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Indeed, Template:Transliteration is particularly relevant to Twelver Shias, for until about the sixteenth century they lived mostly as a minority among an often-hostile Sunni majority.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Traditions attributed to Shia imams thus encourage their followers to hide their faith for their safety, some even characterizing Template:Transliteration as a pillar of faith.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Theological and legal statements of Shia imams were also influenced by Template:Transliteration.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn For instance, al-Baqir is not known to have publicly reviled the first two caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr and Umar,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn most likely because the imam exercised Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn Indeed, al-Baqir's conviction that the Islamic prophet had explicitly designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor implies that Abu Bakr and Umar were usurpers.Template:Sfn More generally, whenever contradictory statements are attributed to Shia imams, those that are aligned with Sunni positions are discarded, for Shia scholars argue that such statements must have been uttered under Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn

Ismaili Shia view

Template:Ismailis For the Ismailis in the aftermath of the Mongol onslaught of the Alamut state in 1256 CE, the need to practice taqiyya became necessary, not only for the protection of the community itself, which was now stateless, but also for safeguarding the line of the Nizari Ismaili Imamate during this period of unrest.<ref name="Virani12">Template:Cite book</ref> Accordingly, the Shia Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq stated "Taqiyya is my religion and the religion of my ancestors",<ref name=al-Islamtaqiyya3>Template:Cite web</ref> a tradition recorded in various sources including Kitāb al-Maḥāsin of Aḥmad b. Muhammad al-Barqī and the Da'ā'im al-Islām of al-Qāḍī al-Nu'mān.<ref name="Virani53">Template:Cite book</ref>

Such periods in which the Imams are concealed are known as satr, however the term may also refer to times when the Imams were not physically hidden from view but rather when the community was required to practice precautionary dissimulation. During satr the Imam could only be accessed by his community and in extremely dangerous circumstances, would be accessible only to the highest-ranking members of the Ismaili hierarchy (ḥudūd), whose function it was to transmit the teachings of the Imam to the community. Shi'a Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq is reputed to have said, "Our teaching is the truth, the truth of the truth; it is the exoteric and the esoteric, and the esoteric of the esoteric; it is the secret and the secret of a secret, a protected secret, hidden by a secret."<ref name=":0" /> The Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Hakim expresses the sentiment of taqiyya when he confides to his followers that "if any religion is stronger than you, follow it, but keep me in your hearts."<ref name=":0" />

According to Shia scholar Muhammad Husain Javari Sabinal, Shiism would not have spread at all if not for taqiyya, referring to instances where Shia have been ruthlessly persecuted by the Sunni political elite during the Umayyad and Abbasid empires.<ref>Tarikhush Shi'ah, p.230</ref> Indeed, for the Ismailis, the persistence and prosperity of the community today owes largely to the careful safeguarding of the beliefs and teachings of the Imams during the Ilkhanate, the Safawid dynasty, and other periods of persecution. Template:Citation needed The 16th century Ismaili author Khwāja Muḥammad Riḍā b. Sulṭān Ḥusayn, also known as Khayrkhvah-i Harati, referring to the Anjudan period, writes about the end of an era of taqiyya. He explains that thus far "a veil was drawn over the visage of truth," but now the Imam "allowed the veil to be lifted". Since the Imam had allowed written correspondence with his followers, he had effectively ended the era of taqiyya.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Gupti community viewed the Aga Khan III as their spiritual leader and Imam, but concealed these beliefs to protect themselves. However, the Guptis used a unique form of taqiyya, they did not appear as Sunni, Sufi, or Ithna ashari, which were the more common identities to take on. Rather they identified as Hindus, and this became a significant aspect of who they were. The Guptis view their taqiyya as a fulfillment and culmination of their outwardly professed faith, rather than contrary to it. The name 'Gupta' in Sanskrit, means secret or hidden, which perfectly embodies the concealment of their faith and true identity.<ref name=":0" />

Alawite view

Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.<ref name="Yunis 1992, p. 63">'Abd al‑Latif al‑Yunis, Mudhakkirat al‑Duktur 'Abd al‑Latif al‑Yunis, Damascus: Dar al‑'Ilm, 1992, p. 63.</ref> Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs (taqiyya) due to historical persecution.<ref name=telegraph>Secretive sect of the rulers of Syria, The Telegraph, 5 August 2011</ref> Some tenets of the faith are secret, known only to a select few;<ref name="GlobSec">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> therefore, they have been described as a mystical sect.<ref name="books.google.co.uk">Template:Cite book</ref> Alawites celebrate Islamic festivals but consider the most important one to be Eid al-Ghadir.

Druze view

Because of the Druze's Ismaili Shia origin, they have also been associated with taqiyya. When the Druze were a minority being persecuted they took the appearance of another religion externally, usually the ruling religion in the area, and for the most part adhered to Muslim customs by this practice.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Contemporary debate

In the early 21st century, taqiyya has become the subject of debate. According to S. Jonathon O'Donnell, some theories posit "the idea that Muslims have a religious duty to deceive non-Muslims if it furthers the cause" of Islam. He argues the "claim rests on a misreading of the concept of taqiyya, by which believers may conceal their faith if under threat of violence. This misreading is widely deployed in Islamophobic writings."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The term has been used by writers and counter-jihadists such as Patrick Sookhdeo, who posit that Muslims use the doctrine as a key strategy in the Islamization of Western countries by hiding their true violent intents.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In 2008 Raymond Ibrahim published in Jane's Islamic Affairs Analyst an article titled "Islam's doctrines of deception".<ref name="Ibrahim2008">Template:Cite web</ref> Ibrahim presented his own translation<ref name="Ibrahim2010"/> of part of Lebanese Druze scholar Sami Makarem's monograph Al Taqiyya Fi Al Islam ("Dissimulation in Islam"). Ibrahim quoted: Template:Cquote Michael Ryan,<ref name="IbrahimRI"/> also in Jane's, characterized Ibrahim's article as "well-researched, factual in places but ... ultimately misleading".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Musaji 2013"/> Ibrahim responded in 2009 with "Taqiyya Revisited: A Response to the Critics", on his blog and on the Middle East Forum website.<ref name="IbrahimRI">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="IbrahimME">Template:Cite web</ref> Ibrahim was again criticised for his view on Taqiyya in 2019, by Islamic scholar Usama Hasan in the Jewish Chronicle.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Ibrahim also responded to Hasan in a FrontPage Magazine article titled "Taqiyya Sunset: Exposing the Darkness Shrouding Islamic Deceit."

Stefan Wimmer argues that taqiyya is not a tool to deceive non-Muslims and spread Islam, but instead a defensive mechanism to save one's life when it is in great danger (giving the example of the Reconquista).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Similar views are shown by Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen from the University of Copenhagen.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Dutch-Palestinian political analyst Mouin Rabbani wrote in a piece that was published by Zeteo: "Prior to the 9/11 terrorist attacks [...] and the tsunami of Islamophobia it unleashed, I’d never heard of taqiyya. Nor had any of the Muslims, or those identified as Muslims, that I had encountered before that time.", he called the term a "useful term" to dismiss criticism and inconvinient facts.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

See also

• Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam
• Crypto-Christianity
• Crypto-Islam
• Crypto-Judaism
• Denial of Peter
• Islamic schools and branches
• Religious views on truth
• Mental reservation
• Islam and Mormonism
• Munafiq
• Self-sacrifice in Jewish law
• Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam

Sources

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Further reading

• Bar-Asher, Me'ir Mikha'el (1999). Scripture and Exegesis in Early Imami Shiism. Brill Academic Publishers. Template:ISBN
• Cook, Michael (2003). Early Muslim Dogma: A Source-Critical Study. Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN
• Daftary, Farhad (1992). The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN
• Goldziher, I., Das Prinzip der takijja im Islam, ZMLG 60 (1906), 213–226.[2]
• Emadi, Hafizullah (1998). The end of taqiyya: reaffirming the religious identity of Ismailis in Shughnan, Badakhshan – political implications for Afghanistan. Middle Eastern Studies. 34(3): 103–120.
• Emadi, Hafizullah (2000). Praxis of taqiyya: perseverance of Pashaye Ismaili enclave, Nangarhar, Afghanistan. Central Asian Survey. 19(2): 253–264.
• Firro, Kais (1999). The Druzes in the Jewish State: A Brief History. Brill Academic Publishers. Template:ISBN
• Gleave, Robert (2000). Inevitable Doubt. Two Theories of Shi'i Jurisprudence. Brill Academic Publishers. Template:ISBN
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• Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib al- (1997). The Reliance of the Traveler, translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Amana Publications.
• Makarem, Sami (2004). Al-Taqiyya Fi Al-Islam (Dissimulation in Islam), Druze Heritage Foundation. Template:ISBN (in Arabic)

External links

• "al-Taqiyya/Dissimulation" (Part I, Part II, Part III), A Shi'ite Encyclopedia