Theridiidae
Template:Short description Template:Automatic taxobox
Theridiidae, also known as the tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders and comb-footed spiders, is a large family of araneomorph spiders first described by Carl Jakob Sundevall in 1833.<ref name="sundevall1833" /> This diverse, globally distributed family includes over 3,000 species in 124 genera,<ref name=wsc /> and is the most common arthropod found in human dwellings throughout the world.<ref name="leong2017" />
Theridiid spiders are both entelegyne,<ref name="agnarsson2006" /> meaning that the females have a genital plate, and ecribellate, meaning that they spin sticky capture silk instead of woolly silk. They have a comb of serrated bristles (setae) on the tarsus of the fourth leg.
The family includes some model organisms for research, including the medically important widow spiders. They are important to studies characterizing their venom and its clinical manifestation, but widow spiders are also used in research on spider silk and sexual biology, including sexual cannibalism. Anelosimus are also model organisms, used for the study of sociality, because it has evolved frequently within the genus, allowing comparative studies across species, and because it contains species varying from solitary to permanently social.<ref name=Purc2007 /> These spiders are also a promising model for the study of inbreeding because all permanently social species are highly inbred.<ref name="agnarsson2006" />
The Hawaiian Theridion grallator is used as a model to understand the selective forces and the genetic basis of color polymorphism within species. T. grallator is known as the "happyface" spider, as certain morphs have a pattern resembling a smiley face or a grinning clown face on their yellow body.<ref name="oxford1996" /><ref name=Gill1989 />
Webs
They often build tangle space webs, hence the common name, but Theridiidae has a large diversity of spider web forms.<ref name=Benj2003 /> Many trap ants and other ground dwelling insects using elastic, sticky silk trap lines leading to the soil surface. Webs remain in place for extended periods and are expanded and repaired, but no regular pattern of web replacement has been observed.<ref name="benjamin2002" />
The well studied kleptoparasitic members of Argyrodinae (Argyrodes, Faiditus, and Neospintharus) live in the webs of larger spiders and pilfer small prey caught by their host's web. They eat prey killed by the host spider, consume silk from the host web, and sometimes attack and eat the host itself.<ref name=Voll1979 /><ref name=Gros1997 />
Theridiid gumfoot-webs consist of frame lines that anchor them to surroundings and of support threads, which possess viscid silk. These can either have a central retreat (Achaearanea-type) or a peripheral retreat (Latrodectus-type).<ref name=Blac2005 /><ref name=Blac2007 /> Building gum-foot lines is a unique, stereotyped behaviour, and is likely homologous for Theridiidae and its sister family Nesticidae.<ref name="benjamin2003" />
Among webs without gumfooted lines, some contain viscid silk (Theridion-type) and some that are sheet-like, which do not contain viscid silk (Coleosoma-type). However, there are many undescribed web forms.
Taxonomy
The largest genus is Theridion with over 600 species,<ref name=wsc /> but it is not monophyletic.Template:Cn Parasteatoda, previously Achaearanea, is another large genus that includes the North American common house spider.
Genera
Template:As of, this family includes 133 genera:<ref name="wsc" /> Template:Div col
- Achaearanea Strand, 1929 – Africa, Asia, Australia, Panama to South America
- Achaearyopa Barrion & Litsinger, 1995 – Philippines
- Achaeridion Wunderlich, 2008 – Turkey
- Allothymoites Ono, 2007 – China, Japan, Vietnam
- Ameridion Wunderlich, 1995 – North America, South America
- Anatea Berland, 1927 – Australia, New Caledonia
- Anatolidion Wunderlich, 2008 – Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, Europe
- Anelosimus Simon, 1891 – Africa, Asia, Oceania, North to South America
- Argyrodella Saaristo, 2006 – Seychelles
- Argyrodes Simon, 1864 – Africa, Asia, Oceania, North to South America
- Ariamnes Thorell, 1869 – Africa, Asia, Mexico to South America, Oceania
- Asagena Sundevall, 1833 – Algeria, Asia, Europe, North America
- Asiopisinus Hu, Wei, Liu & Xu, 2025 – Eastern Asia
- Asygyna Agnarsson, 2006 – Madagascar
- Audifia Keyserling, 1884 – Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Bolivia, Brazil
- Bardala Saaristo, 2006 – Seychelles
- Borneoridion Deeleman & Wunderlich, 2011 – Malaysia
- Brunepisinus Yoshida & Koh, 2011 – Borneo
- Cabello Levi, 1964 – Venezuela
- Cameronidion Wunderlich, 2011 – Malaysia
- Campanicola Yoshida, 2015 – Eastern Asia
- Canalidion Wunderlich, 2008 – Russia, Scandinavia
- Carniella Thaler & Steinberger, 1988 – Europe, Asia, Angola
- Cephalobares O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1871 – China, India, Sri Lanka
- Cerocida Simon, 1894 – Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela
- Chikunia Yoshida, 2009 – Asia, Russia
- Chorizopella Lawrence, 1947 – South Africa
- Chrosiothes Simon, 1894 – Eastern Asia, North to South America
- Chrysso O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882 – Asia, Europe, North America to South America
- Coleosoma O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882 – North to South America, Asia.
- Coscinida Simon, 1895 – Angola, Congo, Tanzania, Asia, southern Europe. Introduced to Thailand
- Craspedisia Simon, 1894 – China, Hispaniola, Brazil
- Crustulina Menge, 1868 – Africa, Asia, Canary Islands, Ukraine, Russia, Jamaica, North America, Oceania
- Cryptachaea Archer, 1946 – Asia, Russia, North to South America, Australia, New Zealand.
- Cyllognatha L. Koch, 1872 – India, Australia, Samoa
- Deelemanella Yoshida, 2003 – Malaysia, Papua New Guinea
- Dipoena Thorell, 1869 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia, Vanuatu
- Dipoenata Wunderlich, 1988 – Madeira, Malta, Panama, Brazil, Venezuela
- Dipoenura Simon, 1909 – Sierra Leone, Asia
- Echinotheridion Levi, 1963 – Canary Islands, Madeira, South America
- Emertonella Bryant, 1945 – China, Mexico, United States. Introduced to China, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, New Guinea
- Enoplognatha Pavesi, 1880 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Australia, Chile, Peru.
- Episinus Walckenaer, 1809 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North to South America, New Zealand
- Euryopis Menge, 1868 – Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, North America, Jamaica, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil
- Eurypoena Wunderlich, 1992 – Cape Verde, Canary Islands
- Exalbidion Wunderlich, 1995 – Mexico to South America
- Faiditus Keyserling, 1884 – North America to South America
- Glebych Eskov & Marusik, 2021 – Peru
- Gmogala Keyserling, 1890 – Australia, New Guinea
- Grancanaridion Wunderlich, 2011 – Canary Islands
- Guaraniella Baert, 1984 – Brazil, Paraguay
- Gushangzao Lin & Li, 2024 – China, Japan
- Gyro Lin & Li, 2024 – China
- Hadrotarsus Thorell, 1881 – Taiwan, Australia, New Guinea. Introduced to Belgium
- Helenidion Sherwood, Marusik, Fowler, Stevens & Joshua, 2024 – St. Helena
- Helvibis Keyserling, 1884 – Trinidad, Panama, Brazil, Chile, Peru
- Helvidia Thorell, 1890 – Indonesia
- Hentziectypus Archer, 1946 – North America, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia
- Heterotheridion Wunderlich, 2008 – China, Caucasus, Iran, Turkey, Russia
- Hetschkia Keyserling, 1886 – Brazil
- Histagonia Simon, 1895 – Botswana, South Africa
- Icona Forster, 1955 – New Zealand
- Jamaitidion Wunderlich, 1995 – Jamaica
- Janula Strand, 1932 – Asia, Australia, North America, South America
- Keijiella Yoshida, 2016 – Eastern Asia
- Knoflachia Marusik & Eskov, 2024 – Russia
- Kochiura Archer, 1950 – Cape Verde, St. Helena, Western Asia, Canary Islands, Madeira, Brazil, Chile, North Africa, Juan Fernández Islands
- Landoppo Barrion & Litsinger, 1995 – Philippines
- Lasaeola Simon, 1881 – Asia, Europe, North to South America
- Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, New Zealand. Introduced to Hawaii, Australia
- Macaridion Wunderlich, 1992 – Canary Islands, Madeira
- Magnopholcomma Wunderlich, 2008 – Australia
- Meotipa Simon, 1895 – Asia, Pacific Islands. Introduced to Americas, Tropical Africa
- Molione Thorell, 1893 – Asia
- Moneta O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1871 – Seychelles, Asia, Russia, Oceania
- Montanidion Wunderlich, 2011 – Malaysia
- Nanume Saaristo, 2006 – Seychelles
- Neopisinus Marques, Buckup & Rodrigues, 2011 – Mexico to South America
- Neospintharus Exline, 1950 – Asia, Cyprus, Greece, Panama, North America, South America
- Neottiura Menge, 1868 – Algeria, Asia, Europe
- Nesopholcomma Ono, 2010 – Japan
- Nesticodes Archer, 1950 – Central and South America. Introduced to St. Helena, China, Japan, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Macaronesia, New Zealand, North Africa, Pacific Islands
- Nihonhimea Yoshida, 2016 – Seychelles, Asia. Introduced to Pakistan, Australia, New Guinea
- Nipponidion Yoshida, 2001 – Japan
- Nojimaia Yoshida, 2009 – China, Japan
- Ohlertidion Wunderlich, 2008 – Russia, North America
- Okumaella Yoshida, 2009 – Japan, Korea
- Paidiscura Archer, 1950 – China, Japan, Korea, Europe, North Africa to Middle East
- Parasteatoda Archer, 1946 – Asia, Russia, Oceania. Introduced worldwide
- Paratheridula Levi, 1957 – USA to Chile
- Pholcomma Thorell, 1869 – Japan, Caucasus, Iran, Turkey, Azores, North America, Oceania, Argentina, Brazil, North Africa
- Phoroncidia Westwood, 1835 – Africa, Asia, Russia, Oceania, Southern Europe, Cuba, Jamaica, North America, South America
- Phycosoma O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1880 – Africa, Asia, Russia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Panama, Galapagos. Introduced to Hawaii
- Phylloneta Archer, 1950 – Asia, Russia, Spain, United States. Introduced to St. Helena
- Platnickina Koçak & Kemal, 2008 – Kenya, Cape Verde, Asia, Russia, North America. Introduced to Seychelles, South Africa, Ascension Islands, Ghana, St. Helena, China, Japan, Korea, Pacific Islands
- Proboscidula Miller, 1970 – Angola, Rwanda
- Propostira Simon, 1894 – India, Sri Lanka
- Pycnoepisinus Wunderlich, 2008 – Kenya
- Rhinocosmetus Vanuytven, Jocqué & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2024 – Asia
- Rhinoliparus Vanuytven, Jocqué & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2024 – Southeast Asia, Oceania
- Rhomphaea L. Koch, 1872 – Mozambique, Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela. Introduced to India
- Robertus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1879 – Democratic Republic of the Congo, Asia, Europe, North America
- Ruborridion Wunderlich, 2011 – India, Spain
- Rugathodes Archer, 1950 – Kazakhstan, Japan, Iran, Azores, Canary Islands, Madeira, Russia, North America. Introduced to Britain
- Sardinidion Wunderlich, 1995 – Georgia, Turkey, North Africa
- Selkirkiella Berland, 1924 – Argentina, Chile, Falkland Islands
- Sesato Saaristo, 2006 – Seychelles
- Seycellesa Koçak & Kemal, 2008 – Seychelles
- Simitidion Wunderlich, 1992 – Western Asia, Canary Islands, Cyprus, Greece, Spain, North Africa. Introduced to Canada
- Spheropistha Yaginuma, 1957 – Eastern Asia, Australia
- Spinembolia Saaristo, 2006 – Seychelles, China, Indonesia
- Spintharus Hentz, 1850 – North America, Brazil, Central, Saint Kitts
- Steatoda Sundevall, 1833 – Worldwide
- Stemmops O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1894 – Asia, Russia, North America, South America
- Stoda Saaristo, 2006 – Seychelles
- Styposis Simon, 1894 – Congo, North to South America
- Takayus Yoshida, 2001 – China, Japan, Korea, Russia
- Tamanidion Wunderlich, 2011 – Malaysia
- Theonoe Simon, 1881 – Tanzania, Austria, Germany, Spain, North America
- Theridion Walckenaer, 1805 – Worldwide
- Theridula Emerton, 1882 – Africa, Asia, Spain, North to South America.
- Thwaitesia O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1881 – Africa, Asia, Oceania, Brazil
- Thymoites Keyserling, 1884 – East Africa, Asia, Russia, Scandinavia, North to South America
- Tidarren Chamberlin & Ivie, 1934 – Africa, Yemen, Canary Islands, Spain. Introduced to Venezuela
- Tomoxena Simon, 1895 – Indonesia, India
- Troglotheridion Hu & Liu, 2025 – China
- Trust Sherwood, Marusik, Wilkins, P. Ashmole & M. Ashmole, 2024 – St. Helena
- Vigdisia Agnarsson, Kuntner, Yu & Gregorič, 2025 – Madagascar
- Wamba O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1896 – United States, Caribbean to Argentina
- Wirada Keyserling, 1886 – Mexico, South America
- Yoroa Baert, 1984 – Australia, New Guinea
- Yunohamella Yoshida, 2007 – Asia, Europe
- Zercidium Benoit, 1977 – St. Helena
About 35 extinct genera have also been placed in the family.<ref name="dunlop2015" /> The oldest known stem-group member of the family is Cretotheridion from the Cenomanian aged Burmese amber of Myanmar.<ref name="magalhaes2020" />
See also
References
Further reading
- Agnarsson I. 2006c. Phylogenetic placement of Echinotheridion (Araneae: Theridiidae) – do male sexual organ removal, emasculation, and sexual cannibalism in Echinotheridion and Tidarren represent evolutionary replicas? Invertebrate Systematics 20: 415–429. PDF Template:Webarchive
- Agnarsson I. 2004. Morphological phylogeny of cobweb spiders and their relatives (Araneae, Araneoidea, Theridiidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 447–626. PDF Template:Webarchive
- Arnedo, M.A., Coddington, J., Agnarsson, I. & Gillespie, R.G. (2004). From a comb to a tree: phylogenetic relationships of the comb-footed spiders (Araneae, Theridiidae) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 31:225–245. PDF
- Arnedo MA, Agnarsson I, Gillespie RG. In Press. Molecular insights into the phylogenetic structure of the spider genus Theridion (Araneae, Theridiidae) and the origin of the Hawaiian Theridion-like fauna. Zoologica Scripta.
- Aviles, L., Maddison, W.P. and Agnarsson, I. 2006. A new independently derived social spider with explosive colony proliferation and a female size dimorphism. Biotropica, 38: 743–753.
- Gillespie, R.G. and Tabashnik, B.E. 1994. Foraging Behavior of the Hawaiian Happy Face Spider (Araneae, Theridiidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 87: 815–822.
- Oxford, G.S. and Gillespie, R.G. 1996. Genetics of a colour polymorphism in Theridion grallator (Araneae: Theridiidae), the Hawaiian happy-face spider, from greater Maui. Heredity, 76: 238–248.
External links
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