Tiberian Hebrew
Tiberian Hebrew is the canonical pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) committed to writing by Masoretic scholars living in the Jewish community of Tiberias in ancient Galilee Template:Circa under the Abbasid Caliphate. They wrote in the form of Tiberian vocalization,<ref>Tiberian Hebrew Phonology: Focussing on Consonant Clusters, Andries W. Coetzee</ref> which employed diacritics added to the Hebrew letters: vowel signs and consonant diacritics (nequdot) and the so-called accents (two related systems of cantillation signs or te'amim). These together with the marginal notes masora magna and masora parva make up the Tiberian apparatus.
Although the written vowels and accents came into use in around 750 CE, the oral tradition that they reflect is many centuries older, with ancient roots.
Sources
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Today's Hebrew grammar books do not teach the Tiberian Hebrew that was described by the early grammarians. The prevailing view is that of David Qimḥi's system of dividing the graphic signs into "short" and "long" vowels. The values assigned to the Tiberian vowel signs reveals a Sephardi tradition of pronunciation (the dual quality of qameṣ (Template:Lang) as Template:IPA, Template:IPA; the pronunciation of simple shva (Template:Lang) as Template:IPA).
The phonology of Tiberian Hebrew can be gleaned from the collation of various sources:
- The Aleppo Codex of the Hebrew Bible and ancient manuscripts of the Tanakh cited in the margins of early codices, all of which preserve direct evidence in a graphic manner of the application of vocalization rules such as the widespread use of reduced vowels where one would expect simple shva, thus clarifying the color of the vowel pronounced under certain circumstances. Most striking is the use of reduced ḥireq in five words under a consonant that follows a guttural vocalized with regular ḥireq (as described by Israel Yeivin) as well as the anomalous use of the rafe over letters that do not belong to Template:Lang or Template:Lang.
- The explicit statements found in grammars of the 10th and the 11th centuries, including the Sēfer haq-Qoloṯ Template:Lang of Moshe ben Asher (published by N. Allony); the Sēfer Diqduqē haṭ-Ṭe'amim (Template:Lang Grammar or Analysis of the Accents) of Aaron ben Moses ben Asher; the anonymous works entitled Horayaṯ haq-Qorē Template:Lang (G. Khan and Ilan Eldar attribute it to the Karaite Jew Aaron of Jerusalem); the Treatise on the Schwa (published by Kurt Levy from a genizah fragment in 1936), and Ma'mar haš-Šəwā Template:Lang (published from Genizah material by Allony); the works of medieval Sephardi grammarians, including Abraham ibn Ezra and Judah ben David Hayyuj. In the case of the latter two, it is evident that the chain of transmission is breaking down or that their interpretations are influenced by local tradition.
- Ancient manuscripts that preserve similar dialects of Hebrew or Jewish Palestinian Aramaic vocalized with Tiberian niqqud that reveal a phonetic spelling rather than a phonemic spelling. They include the so-called "pseudo-Ben Naphtali" or "Palestinian-Sephardi" vocalized manuscripts, which generally conform to the rules enumerated below, such as pronouncing sheva as Template:IPA before consonantal yod, as in Template:IPA Template:Lang.
- Other traditions include Palestinian vocalization and (to a lesser extent) Babylonian (Mesopotamian) vocalization. Each community (Palestinian, Tiberian, Babylonian) developed systems of notation for pronunciation in each dialect, some of which are common among the traditions.
- Karaite transcriptions of Biblical text using the Arabic alphabet but vocalized with Tiberian signs, especially important for syllable structure and vowel length, which is marked in Arabic by matres lectionis and the sign sukun.
- Various oral traditions, especially KaraiteTemplate:Citation needed and Yemenite Hebrew, have both preserved old features that correspond to Tiberian tradition, such as the pronunciation of schwa according to its proximity to gutturals or yod.
Phonology
Consonants
Tiberian Hebrew had at least 23 consonantal phonemes, represented by 22 letters. The sin dot distinguishes between the two values of Template:Script/Hebrew, with a dot on the left (Template:Script/Hebrew) being pronounced the same as the letter Samekh. The letters Template:Script/Hebrew (begadkefat) had two values each: plosive and fricative.
The following are the most salient characteristics of the Tiberian Hebrew consonantal pronunciation:
- Before the labial vowels (Template:Lang) and shva (Template:Lang), the waw-conjunctive (Template:Lang) was read as Template:Lang Template:IPA rather than Template:Lang Template:IPA (as is the case in some eastern reading traditionsTemplate:Which).
- The threefold pronunciation of resh Template:Lang. Even though there is no agreement as to how it was pronounced, the rules of distribution of such pronunciation is given in Template:Lang Horayaṯ haq-Qorē:
- "Normal" Resh Template:IPA pronounced thus (according to Eldar, as a uvular sound Template:IPA) in all other instances (except for the circumstances described below): Template:Lang Template:IPA
- The "peculiar" resh Template:IPA before or after Lamed or Nun, any of the three being vocalized with simple sheva and resh after zayin Template:Lang, daleth Template:Lang, samekh Template:Lang, sin Template:Lang, taw Template:Lang, ṣade Template:Lang, ṭeth Template:Lang, any of them punctuated with simple sheva: Template:Lang Template:IPA, Template:Lang Template:IPA. Because of the proximity of a dental consonant, resh was pronounced as an alveolar trill, as it still is in Sephardi Hebrew.
- There is still another pronunciation, affected by the addition of a dagesh in the Resh in certain words in the Bible, which indicates it was doubled Template:IPA: Template:Lang Template:IPA. As can be seen, this pronunciation has to do with the progressive increase in length of this consonant (Template:Lang). It was preserved only by the population of Ma'azya (Template:Lang), which is in Tiberias.
- A possible threefold pronunciation of taw Template:Lang. There are three words in the Torah, Prophets, and Writings in which it is said that "the Taw is pronounced harder than usual". It is said that this pronunciation was halfway between the soft (Template:IPA) and the hard taw (Template:IPA): Template:Lang Template:IPA
Vowels
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Close-mid | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Open-mid | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Open | Template:IPA | |
| Reduced | Template:IPA1 | |
- marginal
The vowel qualities Template:IPA have phonemic status: Template:Lang (Lev. 5:19) and Template:Lang 'guilty', Template:Lang 'when' and Template:Lang 'mother'.<ref name="b111-112">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Template:IPA has phonemic value in final stressed position Template:Lang, but in other positions, it may reflect loss of the opposition Template:IPA: Template:IPA.<ref name="b111-112" /> By the Tiberian period, all short vowels in ultimately-stressed syllables had lengthened, making vowel length allophonic.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref group="nb">In fact, all stressed vowels were first lengthened in pause, see Template:Harvcoltxt, as can be seen by forms like Tiberian Template:Lang Template:IPA < *Template:IPA, pausal Template:Lang Template:IPA < *Template:IPA < *Template:IPA < *Template:IPA. The shift in Tiberian Hebrew of *Template:IPA > *Template:IPA occurred after that lengthening but before the loss of phonemicity of length (since words like Template:Lang with allophonically long Template:IPA show no such shift).</ref> Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (such as Template:IPA in Template:Lang, which was previously short).<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref group="nb">That is attested to by the testimony of Rabbi Joseph Qimḥi (12th century) and by medieval Arabic transcriptions: Template:Harvcoltxt. There is also possible evidence from the cantillation marks' behaviour and Babylonian pataḥ: Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref>
The Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced (ultrashort, hatuf) vowels Template:IPA of which Template:IPA has questionable phonemicity.<ref name="b117-118">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref group="nb">See Template:Lang Template:IPA 'ships' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'I', Template:Lang Template:IPA 'sickness' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'ornament', Template:Lang Template:IPA 'ascend!' (Num 21:17) and Template:Lang Template:IPA '(with the) pestle' (Prov 27:22). Template:Harvcoltxt Template:IPA alternates with Template:IPA frequently and rarely contrasts with it: Template:Lang Template:IPA 'Edom' versus Template:Lang Template:IPA 'Edomite'. Template:Harvcoltxt Template:IPA is clearly phonemic but bears minimal functional load. Template:Harvcoltxt Template:IPA is written both with mobile šwa Template:Angbr and hataf patah Template:Angbr. Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Template:IPA, under a non-guttural letter, was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural (Template:Lang Template:IPA) and as Template:IPA preceding Template:IPA, (Template:Lang Template:IPA). However, it was always pronounced as Template:IPA under gutturals: Template:Lang Template:IPA.<ref name="y281-282">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="b105-106">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
Stress
Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress (Template:Lang Template:IPA 'they built' vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'in us'). Stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and rarely antepenultimate stress: Template:Lang Template:IPA 'into the tent'.<ref name="b143-144">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref group="nb">
It is unclear that a reduced vowel should be considered a whole syllable. For example, a word's stress shifts to a preceding open syllable to avoid it from being adjacent to another stressed syllable skips over ultrashort vowels: Template:Lang Template:IPA 'with those who go down into the pit' Template:Lang Template:IPA 'pierced with a sword'. See Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
Phonotactics
As described above, vowel length is dependent on syllable structure. Open syllables must take long or ultrashort vowels; stressed closed syllables take long vowels; unstressed closed syllables take short vowels. Traditional Hebrew philology considers ultrashort vowels not to be syllable nuclei.
Orthography
| niqqud with א | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| name | shwa | ḥaṭaf pathaḥ | ḥaṭaf seghol | ḥaṭaf qamaṣ |
| pronunciation | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| niqqud | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew | Template:Script/Hebrew |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| name | daghesh | rafe | mapiq | shin dot | sin dot |
| pronunciation | Gemination of a consonant Template:IPA, or the stop pronunciation of the בגדכפ״ת consonants | Fricative pronunciation of the בגדכפ״ת consonants (its use is optional) | Template:IPA, being the last letter of a word | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
The simple sheva sign changes its pronunciation depending on its position in the word (mobile/vocal or quiescent/zero) and its proximity to certain consonants.
In these examples, it has been preferred to show one in the Bible and represents each phenomenon in a graphic manner (a chateph vowel), but the rules still apply when there is only a simple sheva (depending on the manuscript or edition used).
When the simple sheva appears in any of the following positions, it is regarded as mobile (na):
- At the beginning of a word, which includes the sheva (originally the first of the word) following the attached particles bi-,ki-,li- and u- and preceded by metheg (the vertical line placed to the left of the vowel sign, which stands for either secondary stress or its lengthening). Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Genesis 2:12; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Psalms 74:5. But is not pronounced if there is no metheg; that is, they form a closed syllable.
- The sheva following these three vowels Template:IPA, except for known types of closed syllables (and preceded or not, by metheg). Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Exodus 3:18; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Exodus 4:18.
- The second of two adjacent shevas, when both appear under different consonants. Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Jeremiah 31:33; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Jeremiah 32:9 (except for at the end of a word, Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA).
- The sheva under the first of two identical consonants, preceded by metheg. Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Gen. 14:7; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Exodus: 15:10.
- The sheva under a consonant with dagesh forte or lene. Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Isaiah 9:3; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Ezekiel 17:23.
- The sheva under a consonant that expects gemination but is not so marked, for example, the one found under Template:Script/Hebrew. And sometimes even Template:Script/Hebrew when preceded by the article. Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Genesis 12:3; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA 2 Chronicles 33:18.
- In case a quiescent sheva was followed either by a guttural or yodh, it would turn into mobile according to the rules given below, if preceded by a metheg. Ancient manuscripts support that view. Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Proverbs 28:22; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Job 1:3.
- Any sheva, if the sign metheg is attached to it, would change an ultrashort vowel to a short, or normal length vowel. For this, only ancient, reliable manuscripts can give us a clear picture, since, with time, later vocalizers added to the number of methegs found in the Bible.
The gutturals (Template:Script/Hebrew), and yodh (Template:Script/Hebrew), affect the pronunciation of the sheva preceding them. The allophones of the phoneme Template:IPA follow these two rules:
- It would change its sound to imitate that of the following guttural. Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Numbers 3:17; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Numbers 5:28.
- It would be pronounced as ḥireq before consonantal yodh. Examples: Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA Jeremiah 21:1; Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA in Maimonides' autograph in his commentary to the Mishnah.<ref group="nb">These two rules, as well as the rule that metheg changes sheva from an ultrashort to a normal vowel, are recorded by Solomon Almoli in his Halichot Sheva (Constantinople 1519), though he states that these differences are dying out and that in most places vocal sheva is pronounced like segol. In Oriental communities such as the Syrians, these rules continued to be recorded by grammarians into the 1900s (such as Sethon, Menasheh, Kelale Diqduq ha-qeriah, Aleppo 1914), but they were not normally reflected in actual pronunciation. The rules about yodh and metheg, though not the rule about gutturals, is still observed by the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam: Rodrigues Pereira, Martin, 'Hochmat Shelomoh.</ref>
It must be said that even though there are no special signs apart Template:IPA to denote the full range of furtive vowels, the remaining four (Template:IPA) are represented by simple sheva (ḥaṭaf ḥiriq (Template:Script/Hebrew) in the Aleppo Codex is a scribal oddity and certainly not regular in Hebrew manuscripts with Tiberian vocalization).
All other cases should be treated as zero vowel (quiescent, nah), including the double final sheva (double initial sheva does not exist in this Hebrew dialect), and the sheva in the words Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA and Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA, read by the Tiberian Masoretes as Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA and Template:Script/Hebrew Template:IPA respectively. This last case has similarities with phenomena occurring in the Samaritan pronunciation and the Phoenician language.
Depending on the school of pronunciation (and relying on musical grounds, perhaps), the metheg sign served to change some closed syllables into open ones, and therefore, changing the vowel from short to long, and the quiescent sheva, into a mobile one.
That is referenced specifically by medieval grammarians: Template:Blockquote
The names of the vowel diacritics are iconic and show some variation: Template:Blockquote
Notes
<references group="nb" />