Treaty of Paris (1898)
Template:Short description Template:For Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox treaty Template:History of Cuba Template:History of the PhilippinesThe Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain, commonly known as the Treaty of Paris of 1898,Template:Efn was signed by Spain and the United States on December 10, 1898, and marked the official end of the Spanish–American War. Under it, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over the West Indies archipelagos and islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean, the Western Pacific island of Guam in the Marianas archipelago in Micronesia, and the Western Pacific archipelago of the Philippines in Southeast Asia to the United States.<ref name=thetreaty>Template:Cite web</ref> The cession of the Philippines involved a compensation of $20 millionTemplate:Efn from the United States to Spain.<ref name="Yale">Template:Cite web</ref>
The treaty was preceded by the Spanish-American War armistice, a preliminary peace agreement signed on August 12, 1898 in Washington, DC. The armistice formally stopped the active hostilities between Spain and the United States, requiring Spain to cede Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States, and to agree to the American occupation of Manila in the Philippines.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The treaty came into effect on April 11, 1899, when the documents of ratification were exchanged.<ref name="Butler1902">Template:Cite book</ref> It was the first treaty negotiated between the two governments since the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty.
The Treaty of Paris marked the end of the Spanish Empire, apart from some small holdings. It had a major cultural impact in Spain known as the "Generation of '98". It marked the beginning of the United States as a world power. In the U.S., many supporters of the war opposed the treaty, which became one of the major issues in the election of 1900 when it was opposed by Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who opposed imperialism.<ref>Paolo E. Coletta, "Bryan, McKinley, and the Treaty of Paris." Pacific Historical Review (1957): 131–146. in JSTOR</ref> Republican President William McKinley supported the treaty and was reelected.<ref>Thomas A. Bailey, "Was the Presidential Election of 1900 a Mandate on Imperialism?." Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1937): 43–52. in JSTOR</ref>
Background
The Spanish–American War began on April 25, 1898, due to a series of escalating disputes between the two nations, and ended on December 10, 1898, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. It resulted in Spain's loss of its control over the remains of its overseas empire.<ref name="loc.gov">Library of Congress. "The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War: Introduction."</ref> After much of mainland in the Americas had achieved independence, Cubans tried their hand at revolution in 1868–1878, and again in the 1890s, led by José Martí. The Philippines at this time also became resistant to Spanish colonial rule. August 26, 1896, presented the first call to revolt, led by Andrés Bonifacio, succeeded by Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy. Aguinaldo then negotiated the Pact of Biak-na-Bato with the Spaniards and went into exile to Hong Kong along with the other revolutionary leaders.
The Spanish–American War that followed had overwhelming public support in the United States due to the popular fervor towards supporting Cuban freedom.<ref>Pérez, Louis A. (1998). War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography. "Intervention and Intent." pg. 24</ref>
On September 16, President William McKinley issued secret written instructions to his emissaries as the Spanish–American War drew to a close:
Negotiations
Article V of the peace protocol between United States and Spain on August 12, 1898,<ref>Major Events of the Spanish–American War - Topics in Chronicling America (Newspaper and Current Periodical Reading Room, Library of Congress)</ref> read as follows:
The composition of the American commission was somewhat unusual in that three of its members were senators, which meant, as many newspapers pointed out, that they would later vote on the ratification of their own negotiations.<ref>Template:Harvnb (Introduction, Decolonizing the History of the Philippine–American War, by Paul A. Kramer dated December 8, 2005)</ref> These were American delegation's members:
- William R. Day, chairman, who had resigned as U.S. Secretary of State to lead the commission
- William P. Frye, a senator from Maine
- Cushman Kellogg Davis, a senator from Minnesota
- George Gray, a senator from Delaware
- Whitelaw Reid, a former diplomat and a former nominee for Vice President
The Spanish commission included the following Spanish diplomats:
- Eugenio Montero Ríos,
- Buenaventura de Abarzuza,
- José de Garnica,
- Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia,
- Rafael Cerero, and
- Jules Cambon (French diplomat).
The American delegation, headed by former Secretary of State William R. Day, who had vacated his position as U.S. Secretary of State to head the commission, arrived in Paris on September 26, 1898. The negotiations were conducted in a suite of rooms at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At the first session, on October 1, the Spanish demanded that before the talks got underway, the return of the city of Manila, which had been captured by the Americans a few hours after the signing of the peace protocol in Washington, to Spanish authority. The Americans refused to consider the idea and, for the moment, it was pursued no further.<ref name=wolff2006p163>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Felipe Agoncillo, a Filipino lawyer who represented the First Philippine Republic, was denied participation in the negotiation.
For almost a month, negotiations revolved around Cuba. The Teller Amendment to the declaration of war made it impractical for the United States to annex the island as it had with Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.<ref name=wolff2006p163 /> At first, Spain refused to accept the Cuban national debt of $400 million,Template:Efn but ultimately, it had no choice. Eventually, it was agreed that Cuba was to be granted independence and for the Cuban debt to be assumed by Spain. It was also agreed that Spain would cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States.<ref name=wolff2006p164>Template:Harvnb</ref>
The negotiators then turned to the question of the Philippines. Spanish negotiators were determined to hang onto all they could and hoped to cede only Mindanao and perhaps the Sulu Islands.<ref name=wolff2006p164 /> On the American side, Chairman Day had once recommended the acquisition of only the naval base in Manila, as a "hitching post."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Others had recommended retaining only the island of Luzon. However, in discussions with its advisers, the commission concluded that Spain, if it retained part of the Philippines, would be likely to sell it to another European power, which would likely be troublesome for America.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> On November 25, the American Commission cabled McKinley for explicit instructions. Their cable crossed one from McKinley saying that duty left him no choice but to demand the entire archipelago. The next morning, another cable from McKinley arrived:
This position was proposed by U.S. negotiators, though they considered it unsound, and was formally rejected on November 4. Spain was in distressed financial condition,Template:Sfn and was responsible for considerable Cuban debt, having been sovereign when the debts were incurred. Estimating U.S. costs in the war at $300 millionTemplate:Efn and regarding Porto RicoTemplate:Efn as worth only a fraction of that, the negotiators favored acquisition of the Philippines as indemnity for the balance.Template:Sfn Seeking a solution to avoid collapse of the negotiations, Senator Frye suggested offering Spain $10 or $20 million, describing the purpose as the assumption of existing debts incurred for improvements of a pacific nature.Template:Sfn The State Department approved, though it considered this odious.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> After some discussion, the American delegation offered $20 millionTemplate:Efn on November 21, one tenth of a valuation that had been estimated in internal discussions in October, and requested an answer within two days.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Montero Ríos said angrily that he could reply at once, but the American delegation had already departed from the conference table. When the two sides met again, Queen-Regent Maria Christina had cabled her acceptance. Montero Ríos then recited his formal reply:
Work on the final draft of the treaty began on November 30. It was signed on December 10, 1898.
Ratification
Spanish ratification
In Madrid, the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislature, rejected the treaty, but Maria Christina signed it as she was empowered to do by a clause in the Spanish constitution.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
U.S. ratification
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| George F. Hoar (MA-R) (left), Eugene Hale (ME-R) (center), and George G. Vest (MO-D) (right) led the opposition to the ratification of the Treaty of Paris within the Senate. | ||
In the Senate, there were four main schools of thought on U.S. imperialism that influenced the debate on the treaty's ratification.<ref>Coletta, Paolo E. (1957). "Bryan, McKinley, and the Treaty of Paris." Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 26, No. 2: pg. 132</ref> Republicans generally supported the treaty, but those opposed either aimed to defeat the treaty or exclude the provision that stipulated the acquisition of the Philippines. Most Democrats, particularly in the South, opposed expansion. A minority of Democrats also favored the treaty on the basis of ending the war and granting independence to Cuba and the Philippines. During the Senate debate on ratification, Senators George Frisbie Hoar and George Graham Vest were outspoken opponents. Hoar stated:
Some anti-expansionists stated that the treaty committed the United States to a course of empire and violated the most basic tenets of the constitution. They argued that neither the Congress nor the President had the right to pass laws that governed colonial peoples who were not represented by lawmakers.
Some Senate expansionists supported the treaty and reinforced such views by arguing:
Expansionists said that the Constitution applied only to citizens, an idea that was later supported by the Supreme Court in the Insular Cases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
As the Senate debate continued, Andrew Carnegie and former President Grover Cleveland petitioned the Senate to reject the treaty. Both men adamantly opposed such imperialist policies and participated in the American Anti-Imperialist League, along with other such prominent members as Mark Twain and Samuel Gompers.<ref name="guide.pdf">Template:Cite web</ref>
Fighting erupted between Filipino and American forces in Manila on February 4, and quickly escalated into a battle between armies. This changed the course of debate in the Senate in favor of ratification.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The treaty was eventually approved on February 6, 1899, by a vote of 57 to 27, just over the two-thirds majority required.<ref>Coletta, Paolo E., "McKinley, the Peace Negotiations, and the Acquisition of the Philippines", Pacific Historical Review 30 (November 1961), 348.</ref> Only two Republicans voted against ratification: George Frisbie Hoar of Massachusetts and Eugene Pryor Hale of Maine. Senator Nelson W. Aldrich had opposed entry into the Spanish–American War but supported McKinley after it began. He played a central role in winning the treaty's two-thirds majority ratification.<ref>Paolo E. Coletta, "Bryan, McKinley, and the Treaty of Paris," Pacific Historical Review (1957) 26#2 pp. 131-146 in JSTOR</ref>
| Senators that supported ratification | Senators that opposed ratification |
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| style=! Template:Party shading/Silver Republican |Template:Sortname (SR–UT) | Template:Sortname (D–CA) |
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| Template:Sortname (R–VT) | Template:Sortname (D–IN) |
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Source:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Provisions
The Treaty of Paris provided for the independence of Cuba from Spain, but the U.S. Congress ensured indirect U.S. control by the Platt Amendment and the Teller Amendment. Spain relinquished all claims of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. Upon Spain's departure, Cuba was to be occupied by the United States, which would assume and discharge any obligations of international law by its occupation.
The treaty also specified that Spain would cede Puerto Rico and the other islands under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies as well as the island of Guam in the Mariana Islands to the United States.
The treaty also specified that Spain would cede the Philippine Islands, including the islands within a specified line, to the United States in exchange for $20 million.Template:Efn
Specifics of the cession of the Philippines were later clarified on November 7, 1900, when Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Washington. This clarified that the territories relinquished by Spain to the United States included any and all islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago, but lying outside the lines described in the Treaty of Paris. That treaty explicitly named the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu and their dependencies as among the relinquished territories.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The boundary between the Philippines and North Borneo was further clarified by the Convention Between the United States and Great Britain (1930).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Aftermath
In the United States
Victory in the Spanish–American War turned the United States into a world power because the attainment of the territories of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines expanded its economic dominance in the Pacific. Its growth continued to have effects on U.S. foreign and economic policy well into the next century.<ref>De Ojeda, Jaime. "The Spanish–American War of 1898: A Spanish View." Library of Congress: Hispanic Division.</ref> Furthermore, McKinley's significant role in advancing the ratification of the treaty transformed the presidential office from a weaker position to a prototype of the stronger presidency that is more seen today.<ref>Koenig, Louis W. (1982). "The Presidency of William McKinley" by Lewis L. Gould: Review. Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 3: pg. 448.</ref>
In Spain
The Generation of '98 in Spain comprised those Spanish writers deeply impacted by the events and committed to cultural and aesthetic renewal. They were associated with modernism. The term refers to the moral, political and social crisis in Spain produced by the humiliating loss of the worldwide empire. The intellectuals are known for their criticism of the Spanish literary and educational establishments, which they saw as steeped in conformism, ignorance, and a lack of any true spirit. Their criticism was coupled with and heavily connected to the group's dislike for the Restoration Movement that was occurring in Spanish government.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Herbert Ramsden, "The Spanish ‘Generation of 1898’: I. The history of a concept." Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 56.2 (1974): 463-491. online</ref>
A few years after the war, during the reign of Alfonso XIII, Spain improved its commercial position and maintained close relations with the United States, which led to the signing of commercial treaties between the two countries in 1902, 1906 and 1910. Spain would turn its attention to its possessions in Africa (especially northern Morocco, Spanish Sahara and Spanish Guinea) and would begin to rehabilitate itself internationally after the Algeciras Conference of 1906.<ref>Antonio Ñíguez Bernal, «Las relaciones políticas, económicas y culturales entre España y los Estados Unidos en los siglos XIX y XX», p. 94.</ref>
In the Philippines
Philippine revolutionaries had declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898, and continued to resist the imposition of American sovereignty. On August 12, 1898, representatives of Spain and the US concluded a peace protocol in Washington D.C., suspending hostilities. Article 3 of that agreement specified, "The United States shall occupy and hold the City, Bay. and harbour of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines."<ref>Template:Cite book (full text available here)Template:Webarchive)</ref> Representatives of Spain and the U.S. concluded the treaty in Paris on December 10, ending the war between them. Article 3 ceded the Philippines from Spain to the U.S.
The 1899 Battle of Manila between American and Filipino troops on February 4–5, 1899, then ignited the Philippine-American War, which concluded with an American victory in 1902. In the meantime, Spain and the U.S. exchanged treaty ratifications on April 11, 1899, completing the passage of Philippine sovereignty to the U.S.
In Mindanao
The United States fought long brutal wars against the Moro sultanates in Mindanao from 1899 to 1913. It annexed the Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Confederation of sultanates in Lanao in 1905 after the Battle of the Malalag River and then annexed the Sultanate of Sulu in 1913 after the Battle of Bud Bagsak.<ref>Robert A. Fulton. Moroland: The History of Uncle Sam and the Moros 1899–1920 (2009) pp 43-58</ref>
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
- Law.yale.edu: Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain
- Msc.edu.ph: 1898 Treaty of Paris – full text of the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War.
- Library of Congress Guide to the Spanish–American War
- PBS: Crucible of Empire: The Spanish–American War Senate Debate over Ratification of the Treaty of Paris
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