Tsonga language

{{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check |unknown=Template:Main other |preview=Page using Template:Infobox language with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| acceptance | agency | aiatsis | aiatsis2 | aiatsis3 | aiatsis4 | aiatsis5 | aiatsis6 | aiatsisname | aiatsisname2 | aiatsisname3 | aiatsisname4 | aiatsisname5 | aiatsisname6 | altname | ancestor | ancestor2 | ancestor3 | ancestor4 | ancestor5 | ancestor6 | ancestor7 | ancestor8 | ancestor9 | ancestor10 | ancestor11 | ancestor12 | ancestor13 | ancestor14 | ancestor15 | boxsize | coordinates | coords | created | creator | date | dateprefix | development_body | dia1 | dia2 | dia3 | dia4 | dia5 | dia6 | dia7 | dia8 | dia9 | dia10 | dia11 | dia12 | dia13 | dia14 | dia15 | dia16 | dia17 | dia18 | dia19 | dia20 | dia21 | dia22 | dia23 | dia24 | dia25 | dia26 | dia27 | dia28 | dia29 | dia30 | dia31 | dia32 | dia33 | dia34 | dia35 | dia36 | dia37 | dia38 | dia39 | dia40 | dialect_label | dialects | ELP | ELP2 | ELP3 | ELP4 | ELP5 | ELP6 | ELPname | ELPname2 | ELPname3 | ELPname4 | ELPname5 | ELPname6 | era | ethnicity | extinct | fam1 | fam2 | fam3 | fam4 | fam5 | fam6 | fam7 | fam8 | fam9 | fam10 | fam11 | fam12 | fam13 | fam14 | fam15 | family | familycolor | fontcolor | glotto | glotto2 | glotto3 | glotto4 | glotto5 | glottoname | glottoname2 | glottoname3 | glottoname4 | glottoname5 | glottopedia | glottorefname | glottorefname2 | glottorefname3 | glottorefname4 | glottorefname5 | guthrie | ietf | image | imagealt | imagecaption | imagescale | iso1 | iso1comment | iso2 | iso2b | iso2comment | iso2t | iso3 | iso3comment | iso6 | isoexception | lc1 | lc2 | lc3 | lc4 | lc5 | lc6 | lc7 | lc8 | lc9 | lc10 | lc11 | lc12 | lc13 | lc14 | lc15 | lc16 | lc17 | lc18 | lc19 | lc20 | lc21 | lc22 | lc23 | lc24 | lc25 | lc26 | lc27 | lc28 | lc29 | lc30 | lc31 | lc32 | lc33 | lc34 | lc35 | lc36 | lc37 | lc38 | lc39 | lc40 | ld1 | ld2 | ld3 | ld4 | ld5 | ld6 | ld7 | ld8 | ld9 | ld10 | ld11 | ld12 | ld13 | ld14 | ld15 | ld16 | ld17 | ld18 | ld19 | ld20 | ld21 | ld22 | ld23 | ld24 | ld25 | ld26 | ld27 | ld28 | ld29 | ld30 | ld31 | ld32 | ld33 | ld34 | ld35 | ld36 | ld37 | ld38 | ld39 | ld40 | linglist | linglist2 | linglist3 | linglist4 | linglist5 | linglist6 | lingname | lingname2 | lingname3 | lingname4 | lingname5 | lingname6 | lingua | lingua2 | lingua3 | lingua4 | lingua5 | lingua6 | lingua7 | lingua8 | lingua9 | lingua10 | linguaname | linguaname2 | linguaname3 | linguaname4 | linguaname5 | linguaname6 | linguaname7 | linguaname8 | linguaname9 | linguaname10 | listclass | liststyle | map | map2 | mapalt | mapalt2 | mapcaption | mapcaption2 | mapscale | minority | module | name | nation | nativename | notice | notice2 | official | posteriori | pronunciation | protoname | pushpin_image | pushpin_label | pushpin_label_position | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption | pushpin_mapsize | qid | ref | refname | region | revived | revived-cat | revived-category | script | setting | sign | signers | speakers | speakers_label | speakers2 | stand1 | stand2 | stand3 | stand4 | stand5 | stand6 | standards | state | states }}

File:South Africa 2011 Tsonga speakers proportion map.svg

Geographical description of Tsonga in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks a form of Tsonga at home

Tsonga (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell) or Xitsonga as an endonym (also known as Changana in Mozambique), is a Bantu language spoken by the Tsonga people of South Africa and Mozambique. It is mutually intelligible with Tswa and Ronga and the name "Tsonga" is often used as a cover term for all three, also sometimes referred to as Tswa-Ronga. The Xitsonga language has been standardised as a written language.

Tsonga is an official language of the Republic of South Africa, and under the name Shangani it is recognised as an official language in the Constitution of Zimbabwe. All Tswa-Ronga languages are recognised in Mozambique. It is not official in Eswatini (formerly known as Swaziland).

History

The first records of studies of Xitsonga by Europeans go back the Swiss missionary, Henri-Alexandre Junod, who between the years 1890 and 1920 hypothesised that the Xitsonga language (which he called the Thonga language) consolidated itself in Mozambique before the 1400s. In his own words, Junod states the following:<ref>Junod, Henry (1912, 1927), The Life of a South African Tribe: The Social Life, Neuchatel: Imprimerie Attinger Freres, p. 32–33</ref>

My conclusion is then that the Thonga language was already-spoken by the primitive occupants of the country more than 500 years ago and that, together with a certain number of customs, it formed the great bond which bound the Thonga clans together in past centuries.{{#if:|

|}}{{#if:|

— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries

}}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}

Further studies were carried out by Junod and other Swiss missionaries such as Henri Berthoud and Ernest Creux, who began work on a standard written language, which they called Shigwamba. The term was however unfamiliar to many of the speakers, and was later replaced with Thonga/Tsonga.<ref>Harries, P. 1987, The Roots of Ethnicity: Discourse and the Politics of Language Construction in South-East Africa, University of the Witwatersrand. p. 16</ref>Other Swiss missionaries working alongside Tsonga people translated the Christian Bible from English and Sesotho into Tsonga.

In 1996, the language was officially recognized as Xitsonga within the Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996), which declared it an official language of the nation. The standardization of the Xitsonga language has since strengthened the position of language as a medium for communication.

Etymology

The name "Tsonga" is the root of Xitsonga (culture, language or ways of the Tsonga) Mutsonga (a Tsonga person), Vatsonga (Tsonga people), etc. In the language of the Vatsonga themselves, the root never appears by itself. It is Tsonga for the ease and accessibility of the wider international community.

As for the origins of the name, there are three theories. The first states that Tsonga is another pronunciation for Dzonga, which means "South" and also the name of one of the dialects of Xitsonga. The second theory is that it is an alternative spelling of the old ancestral name of the Chopi and Tembe groups, Tonga/Thonga.<ref>Elephant Coast, (2009). History of the Thembe – Thonga, Retrieved from http://www.visitelephantcoast.co.za/index.php?history_thembe Template:Webarchive</ref> The other Zulu explanation for the alternative spelling of "Thonga" is that the Tembe and Rhonga people, who were the first to arrive at the Delagoa Bay and around the Natal Bay, transitioned the Rhonga "Rh" into the Zulu form of "Th". An example is rhuma (Tsonga word for "send") becoming thuma (Zulu word for the same action). The third and most accepted is that it is another pronunciation for "Rhonga", the root for the word "vurhonga" for east or the direction where the sun rises. Vurhonga also means dawn in Xitsonga. Rhonga (commonly and wrongly spelt as Ronga) is one of the Tsonga languages. The physical evidence of most Tsonga people residing along the eastern coast of Africa in the south, extending inland in a westward direction, makes this explanation especially inviting. However Junod had initially used the Ronga appellation but had also realized that the northern clans did not frequently use the name 'Ronga' as their identity name, but most certainly Tsonga is a derivation of Ronga.

Much of the written history about the Tsonga regards the aftermath of the mfecane where the Nguni people overran many of the pre-existing African tribes of South Africa, Eswatini, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe.

Languages and dialects

Template:Multiple image Tsonga is a Bantu language (Guthrie code S.53), closely related to other members to the Tswa-Ronga group (S.50):

1. Ronga (Rhonga) dialects are Kalanga (Xinyisa, Xindindindi (Xizingili), Putru, and Xinyondroma.
2. Tsonga (Gwamba, Gwapa) dialects are Bila (Vila), Djonga (Dzonga, Jonga), Hlanganu (Langanu, Nhlanganu), Hlave (Mbayi, Nkuna, Pai), Kande, Khosa, Luleke, N'walungu (Ngwalungu), Nkuma, Songa, Valoyi, Xika, and Xonga.
3. Tswa (Tshwa) dialects are Dzibi (Dzivi), Dzibi-Dzonga (Dzivi-Dzonga), Tshwa, Hlengwe (Lengwe, Lhenge), Khambani, Makwakwe-Khambani, Mandla, Ndxhonge, and Nhayi (Nyai, Nyayi).

Some dialects are subdialects but have been mentioned here for completeness. For example, Valoyi and Luleke comprise the N'walungu dialect. There is no Gwamba dialect as Gwamba is another name for Xitsonga itself. Formally Xitsonga has been called Gwamba. Tswa-Ronga dialects not considered part of the family include Pulana (Xipulana, Sepulane). What is commonly referred to as "Shangana/Changana" is not a recognised language in South Africa and is not a dialect that falls within the Xitsonga language group, as its distinctiveness stems mainly from the use of the Nguni language and grammar.

Only six Thonga/Tsonga dialects exist and these were identified by the dawn of the 1900s. These are namely xiRonga, xiHlanganu, xiBila, xiDjonga, xiN'walungu, and xiHlengwe. All other variations within South Africa are sub-dialects of the aforementioned. The dialects most spoken in the rural communities of Limpopo are the N'walungu, Bila, Hlengwe, and the Hlanganu dialects. The Xitsonga vocabulary and phonetic permutations are also largely based on these dialects (cf. Junod 1912, p. 470–473)

For "language of", the various languages and dialects employ one or more of the following prefixes: Bi-, Chi-, Ci-, Gi-, Ici-, Ki-, Ma-, Shee-, Shi-, Txi-, Va-, Wa-, and Xi-. For "people of", they use either "Ba-" or "Va-".

Orthography

Letter	IPA value<ref name="Baumbach">Template:Cite book</ref>	Letter	IPA value<ref name="Baumbach" />	Letter	IPA value<ref name="Baumbach" />	Letter	IPA value<ref name="Baumbach" />
a	main}}	p	main}}	pf	main}}	ff	main}}
aa	main}}	ph	main}}	pfh	main}}	v	main}}
e	main}}	py	main}}	bv	main}}	f	main}}
ee	main}}	phy	main}}	bvh	main}}	vh	main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
i	main}}	b	main}}	ts	main}}	s	main}}
ii	main}}	bh	main}}	tsh	main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	sw	main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
o	main}}	by	main}}	tsw	main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	z	main}}
oo	main}}	bhy	main}}	dz	main}}	zw	main}}
u	main}}	t	main}}	dzh	main}}	hl	main}}
uu	main}}	th	main}}	dzhw	main}}	hlw	main}}
r	main}}	tw	main}}	dzw	main}}	l	main}}
rh	main}}	thw	main}}	dhl	main}}	lw	main}}
rw	main}}	ty	main}}	c	main}}	x	main}}
rhw	main}}	thy	main}}	ch	main}}	xw	main}}
m	main}}	d	main}}	cw	main}}	xj	main}}
mh	main}}	dh	main}}	chw	main}}	hh	main}}
my	main}}	dw	main}}	j	main}}	hhw	main}}
n	main}}	dy	main}}	jh	main}}	h	main}}
nh	main}}	tl	main}}	jw	main}}	hw	main}}
nw	main}}	tlh	main}}	w	main}}	hy	main}}
nhw	main}}	tlw	main}}	y	main}}
ny	main}}	tlhw	main}}	wh	main}}
nyw	main}}	dl	main}}	yh	main}}
nʼ	main}}	dlw	main}}	yw	main}}
nʼh	main}}	k	main}}
nʼw	main}}	kh	main}}
nʼhw	main}}	kw	main}}
q	main}}	khw	main}}
qh	main}}	g	main}}
qhw	main}}	gh	main}}
gq	main}}	gw	main}}
gqw	main}}	ghw	main}}

Phonology

Tsonga has a distinction between modal and breathy voiced consonants: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs {{#invoke:IPA|main}} among the obstruents (the one exception being {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs {{#invoke:IPA|main}} among the sonorants (the one exception being {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). The segmental inventory is as follows:<ref name="Baumbach"/>

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	Template:IPAlink, (Template:IPAlink), Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink, Template:IPAlink
Mid	Template:IPAlink, (Template:IPAlink), Template:IPA link	(Template:IPAlink)	Template:IPAlink, Template:IPA link
Open		Template:IPAlink, Template:IPAlink, Template:IPAlink

Long vowels are written double. Nasalised vowels are not distinguished in writing; {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are only found in words for 'yes' and 'no', while {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found in a few mimetic words. Mid vowels can vary from close-mid to open-mid; they are generally close-mid {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before a high vowel, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and low-mid {{#invoke:IPA|main}} otherwise. Vowels may be realised as murmured {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when following breathy consonants.

Consonants

		Labial		Labio- dental	Dental		Alveolar				Lateral		Post- alveolar		Velar		Glottal
		plain	pal.		plain	lab.	plain	lab.	pal.	wstld.	plain	lab.	plain	lab.	plain	lab.	plain	lab.	pal.
Click	voiceless				Template:IPAlink
	aspirated				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	voiced				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Nasal	voiced	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink					Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	breathy	Template:IPAlink					Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink							Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Stop	voiceless	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		main}}	main}}			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	aspirated	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		main}}	main}}			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	voiced	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		main}}	main}}			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	breathy	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink				Template:IPAlink								Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Affricate	voiceless			Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		main}}			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	aspirated			Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		main}}			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	voiced			Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink			main}}	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	breathy			Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink					Template:IPAlink
Fricative	voiceless	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		main}}	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	voiced	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink					Template:IPAlink				Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	breathy			Template:IPAlink
Trill	voiced						Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
	breathy						Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Approximant	voiced										Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink
	breathy												Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink

Many of these consonants may be preceded by a nasal, but they are not prenasalised consonants: at least in word-initial position, they are nasal–obstruent sequences where the nasals are syllabic.

Different consonant sounds may alternate the place of articulation. A number of Tsonga speakers vary the affricates from alveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to retroflex {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; the latter are weakly whistled in Tsonga proper and in Changana dialect. Labiodental {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and dental {{#invoke:IPA|main}} appear in homorganic consonant clusters.<ref name="Baumbach"/>

Unlike some of the Nguni languages, Tsonga has very few words with click consonants, and these vary in place between dental {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and postalveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Examples are: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (mind), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (wear/dress), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (kneel), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (phone), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (earring), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (compose), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Saturday).

Grammar

The grammar is generally typical of Bantu languages with a subject–verb–object order. The structure changes to subject—object—verb when addressing another person:

Tsonga	English
lang}}	I you love (I love you)
lang}}	You love me
lang}}	We know you
lang}}	They know me

Verbs

Almost all infinitives have the prefix ku- and end with -a.

Tsonga	English
lang}}	To fear
lang}}	To rejoice
lang}}	to love

The main exception to this is the verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – "to say" It corresponds to "ti" in many other Bantu languages. Examples of its usage include:
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – What do you say? (What are you saying?)
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I say to you all.

In many instances the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is often omitted and thus {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} on its own can also mean "say".
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – They say I'm crazy.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – What do they say? (What are they saying?)

Present tense
The present tense is formed by simply using the personal pronoun along with the verb.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I want money,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – We work all day,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – Who are you looking for?
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – S/He knows how to walk.

Present progressive
Generally, to indicate ongoing actions in the present one takes the personal pronoun, drops the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and adds {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I am entering the house,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – We are working right now,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – You (plural) are lying,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – You (singular) are lying,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – S/He is lying,
With the plural {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (they) there is no difference. Thus {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = "they lie" and "they are lying".

Past tense
This is for in one of three ways, depending on the word.
(i) Generally, one drops the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} from the verb and adds the prefix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I entered the house,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – We worked all day,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – You lied,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – S/He lied,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – They lied.

(ii) With verbs that end with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, the past tense changes to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – to forget,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I forgot, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – you forgot, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – they forgot,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – To disappear,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – S/He – disappeared,
Words used to describe a state of being also use the past tense.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – To be tired,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I am tired, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – S/He is tired, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – They are tired.

(iii) In many cases merely changing the last {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in the verb to an {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} indicates past action.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – To arrive,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – S/He arrived yesterday,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I arrived yesterday,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – We worked all day,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I entered the house.

Future tense
This is formed by the adding {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in between the personal pronoun and the verb.
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – I will enter the house,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – We will work all day,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – They will work all day,
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – You (plural) will work all day.

Noun classes

Tsonga has several classes, much like other Bantu languages, which are learned through memorisation mostly. These are:

Class	Prefix	Examples
1	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "boy", Template:Wikt-lang "leader", Template:Wikt-lang "person"
2	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "boys", Template:Wikt-lang "leaders", Template:Wikt-lang "people"
3	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "arrow", Template:Wikt-lang "leg", Template:Wikt-lang "river"
4	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "arrows", Template:Wikt-lang "legs", Template:Wikt-lang "rivers"
5	lang}}, Ø-	Template:Wikt-lang "country", Template:Wikt-lang "word", Template:Wikt-lang "name"
6	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "countries", Template:Wikt-lang "words", Template:Wikt-lang "names"
7	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "God", Template:Wikt-lang "thing", Template:Wikt-lang "chair"
8	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "gods", Template:Wikt-lang "things", Template:Wikt-lang "chairs"
9	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "house", Template:Wikt-lang "dog", Template:Wikt-lang "cow"
10	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "houses", Template:Wikt-lang "dogs", Template:Wikt-lang "cows"
11	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "jaw", Template:Wikt-lang "rib", Template:Wikt-lang "finger"
14	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "life", Template:Wikt-lang "humanness", Template:Wikt-lang "righteousness"
15	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "to trust", Template:Wikt-lang "to eat", Template:Wikt-lang "ugliness"
21	lang}}	Template:Wikt-lang "abnormally huge person", Template:Wikt-lang "abnormally huge house"

• In classes 9 and 10, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is present when the noun stem has one syllable, and is absent otherwise.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns in Tsonga are very similar to those of many other Bantu languages, with a few variations.

These may be classified as first person (the speaker), second person (the one spoken to), and third person (the one spoken about). They are also classified by grammatical number, i.e., singular and plural. There is no distinction between subject and object.

Each pronoun has a corresponding concord or agreement morpheme.Template:Clarify

Personal pronouns

	1st sg.	2nd sg.	3rd sg.	1st pl.	2nd pl.	3rd pl.
Pronoun	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Agreement morpheme	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Example sentences	lang}} ("I see a chicken.") {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("I see it—the chicken.")	lang}} ("You see a chicken.") {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("You see it—the chicken.")	lang}} ("He/she sees a chicken.") {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("He/she sees it—the chicken.")	lang}} ("We see a chicken.") {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("We see it—the chicken.")	lang}} ("You see a chicken.") {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("You see it—the chicken.")	lang}} ("They see a chicken.") {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("They see it—the chicken.")

Vocabulary

The vocabulary of Xitsonga is essentially similar not only to most South African languages but also other Eastern Bantu languages, for example, Kiswahili.<ref>DigitalTsonga, (2020). Some Common Xitsonga Words that are also Similar in Kiswahili, Retrieved from https://www.digitaltsonga.com/&page=blog/2020-12-14/Some_Common_Xitsonga_Words_that_are_also_Similar_in_Kiswahili Template:Webarchive</ref>

Numerals

Tsonga	English
lang}}	one
lang}}	two
lang}}	three
lang}}	four
lang}}	five
lang}}	six
lang}}	seven
lang}}	eight
lang}}	nine
lang}}	ten
lang}}	eleven
lang}}	twelve
lang}}	thirteen
lang}}	twenty
lang}}	thirty
lang}}	forty
lang}}	fifty
lang}}	hundred
lang}}	thousand
lang}}	million

Months of the year

Tsonga	English
lang}}	January
lang}}	February
lang}}	March
lang}}	April
lang}}	May
lang}}	June
lang}}	July
lang}}	August
lang}}	September
lang}}	October
lang}}	November
lang}}	December

Borrowings

Tsonga, like many other African languages, have been influenced by various European colonial languages. Tsonga vocabulary includes words borrowed from English, Afrikaans, and Portuguese. Also, due to the assimilation of the Shangaan nation, it has taken some words from Nguni languages.

Words borrowed from English:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – television
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – Radio
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – chair (Stool)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – watch (to tell time)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – car (automobile)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – socks
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – glass
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – clock(bell)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – municipal (plural: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – keys

Words borrowed from Afrikaans:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – sweets ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – window ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – spoon ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – church ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – trousers ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – idiot ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – table ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – ghost ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})

Words borrowed from other Nguni languages:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – phone
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – to head towards (not standard = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – to end (not standard = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – to try (not standard = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})

Writing system

Xitsonga Latin alphabet

Xitsonga uses the Latin alphabet. However, certain sounds are spelled using a combination of letters, which either do not exist in Indo-European languages, or may be meant to distinguish the language somewhat.

An example of this is the letter "x" taken from Portuguese orthography, which is pronounced Template:Ipa. Therefore, the following words, [ʃuʃa], [ʃikolo], [ʃilo], are written in Tsonga as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

Other spelling differences include the letter "c", which is pronounced Template:Ipa. However, where the emphasis of a word is on the following vowel the letter is hardened by adding "h" this the Tsonga word -chava (fear)

A sound equivalent to the Welsh "ll" (Template:Ipa) is written "hl" in Tsonga, e.g. -hlangana (meet), -hlasela (attack), -hleka (laugh)

A whistling sound common in the language is written "sw" or "sv" in Zimbabwean ChiShona. This sound actually belongs to the "x-sw" class within the language. E.g.:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (now)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (thing) – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (things)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (school) – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (schools)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (God) – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (gods)

Another whistling sound is spelled "dy" but has no English equivalent, the closest being the "dr" sound in the English word "drive"

Xitsonga has been standardised as a written language. However, there are many dialects within the language that may not pronounce words as written. For example, the Tsonga bible uses the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (tell), pronounced bwe-la, however a large group of speakers would say "dzvela" instead.

The Lord's Prayer as written in the Xitsonga Bible (Bibele)

<poem> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} </poem>

Xiyinhlanharhu xa Mipfawulo

The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} writing system, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, also known technically in Xitsonga as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}},<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> is used for all Xitsonga varieties. The class 7/8 noun pairs above are represented as follows:

lang}}	File:Xilo.jpg [ʃiːlɔ]	lang}}	File:Swilo.jpg [ʂiːlɔ]
lang}}	File:Xikolo.jpg [ʃikʼɔːlɔ]	lang}}	File:Swikolo.jpg [ʂikʼɔːlɔ]
lang}}	File:Xikwembu.jpg [ʃikʷʼɛmbu]	lang}}	File:Swikwembu.jpg [ʂikʷʼɛmbu]

Oral literature

Tales

E. Dora Earthy, a missionary in Mozambique,<ref name="h930">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> published a selection of Tsonga folktales (Lenge dialect) with facing-text English translations in the 1937 volume of the journal Folklore: Part 1 contains three stories<ref name="i268">Template:Cite journal</ref> and Part 2 contains an additional seven stories.<ref name="j697">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The organisation Aidglobal published a series of four children's books in Xichangana (one of Mozambique's Tsonga languages) in 2024<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> written by Venâncio Calisto and Mélio Tinga, and illustrated by Suzy Bila, Marisa Bimbo da Costa, Ruben Zacarias and Samuel Djive. The Xichangana/Portuguese translations were done by Williamo Muchanga.

Songs

Henri-Alexandre Junod included a selection of Tsonga song lyrics with English translations in his 1913 study, The Life of a South African Tribe.<ref>Junod, Henri (1913). "Songs," in The Life of a South African Tribe: vol. 2, The Psychic Life. pp. 167–190.</ref>

For more recent studies of Tsonga music and songs, see the publications of Thomas Johnston in the 1970s, all of which include Tsonga song lyrics with English translations.<ref name="z352">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="g474">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="f445">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="y930">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="a460">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Riddles

Junod also included a selection of Tsonga riddles with English translations in The Life of a South African Tribe.<ref name="prov">Junod, Henri (1913). "Proverbial Sayings and Riddles," in The Life of a South African Tribe: vol. 2, The Psychic Life. pp. 157–166.</ref> Here are two of those riddles:

• "Tiban leshi, nambi mamana wa nwana a ku mu randja ngopfu, loko a tlhasa kaya a nga hluleka ka ku mu yamukela? Hi nyimba." "Guess what is it that a mother dearly loves but which could not run to meet her on her return home? The unborn babe in the womb."
• "Leshi, nambi wa ba, ntonsi wa kone wu nga boneki? I mati." "The thing which you can beat without leaving a scar? Water."

Following up on Junod's work on Tsonga riddles, J.E. Kaemmer has documented Tsonga "tone riddles," specifically the titekatekani of the Tswa people.<ref>Kaemmer, J.E. (1972). "Tone Riddles from Southern Mozambique." Research in African Literatures. 3 (1): 5-20. Available at Internet Archive.</ref>

Proverbs

Here are some of the Tsonga proverbs which Junod recorded in The Life of a South African Tribe:<ref name="prov"/>

• "Mumiti wa nhengele a dumba nkolo wa kwe." "He who swallows a large stone has confidence in the size of his throat (i.e. applying to bumptious and pretentious folk)." (#1)
• "Tinhlange ta le ntjhaku ti tibyiwa hi mutlhabi." "The tattooing marks made on the back are known by the tattooer (not by the tattooed, i.e. you do not know what may happen when you have turned your back)." (#3)
• "Matimba ya ngwenya i mati." "The strength of the crocodile is water (i.e. when you are in your own domain you can succeed)." (#4)

Junod later published Quelques Proverbes Thonga, a booklet of Tsonga proverbs, in 1931.<ref>Junod, Henri (1931). Quelques Proverbes Thonga. Lausanne: Mission suisse dans l'Afrique du Sud.</ref>

Some additional Tsonga proverbs:Template:Citation needed

{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} }}

Tsonga	English	Meaning
lang}}	The child of baboon does not fail a branch.	A wiseman's child can do anything.
lang}}	Do not tie money in the leg of hippopotamus.	Do not lend your money to people who do not pay back.
lang}}	Do not kill a snake and swing it, the ones inside the holes are watching you.	Do not do unnecessary bad things to someone, other people are watching you.
lang}}	A fig fruit which is pink, it has a worm inside.	Most of very beautiful women they have bad habits.
lang}}	The child of snake is a snake.	A child of a bad person, might be a very bad person.
lang}}	An elephant does not die of one (broken) rib.	When in trouble, a man should try all efforts to find a solution.
lang}}	A secretive goat does not give birth in a midst.	Keep a secret do not say it where there are many people.
lang}}		If one tries to do more than one thing at the same time, one might not prosper.
lang}}	A child who does not cry will die unnoticed at the back of his mother.	If you do not raise your voice (in a form of a complaint), you will not be heard.
lang}}	A goat eats where it is tied.	A person must use properties of a place where he is working.
lang}}	The way an impala jumps, it influences its unborn child.	Whatever bad things a mother does, her daughter will also do.
lang}}	It is a lion's beard.	A thing may not be as scary as it looks.
lang}}	A mouth can cross any river.	A mouth can say all words of promises.
lang}}	Grass cannot grow on a human being's hands.	You must work hard (in every possible way) to succeed.
lang}}	Let the hand go and let the hand come back.	A giving hand is a receiving hand.
lang}}	The snail has collected ashes.	A person has died.
lang}}	A dog smiles when it intends to bite something.	A person can do (or intend to do) bad things to you, while he is smiling.
lang}}	To be given by Thomo (king's name) from heavenly parliament	To be blessed by God
lang}}	Siblings are sharing the head of locust.	Siblings must share good things.
lang}}	An antelope which is jumping around next to Mangulwe (dog's name), he will catch it.	Any girl who has been seen by this boy, she will accept his proposal (used by a boy when he is in love with a girl).
lang}}	Yesterday will not come back.	Wishing to bring interesting old things of old days to nowadays.
lang}}	A lion roars in the bush.	A warrior is seen in a war.
lang}}	To pass a home during the day	To be stupid
lang}}	Two lions fear each other.	Two powerful nations fear each other.
lang}}	Two hippos cannot stay in the same deep water.	Enemies cannot stay in the same place.
lang}}	Chiefdom does not cross the river.	Chiefdom stays in the same family, cannot be passed to other families.
lang}}	I thought is where the rain has poured and left fertile soil.	I thought it was good things.
lang}}		It is plenty.
lang}}	To have a burnt mouth	lang}}
lang}}		A disobedient child
lang}}	The one who challenges buffaloes they will chase him.	He who provokes other people, will face the consequences.
lang}}	When you think of rhino, climb a tree.	When you think of something, act immediately.
lang}}	To hit an elephant with a fist	To make a very slight impression
lang}}	To hit each other with a baboon's bone	To exchange gifts with relatives only
lang}}	To hit each other with a hot 'pumpkin'	To accuse each other
lang}}	One must not choose the male of the guinea-fowl (similar to "Don't count your chickens before they are hatched").	This proverb is said to a young husband who might be tempted to prepare something for their babies before their birth, since you do not know if the baby is a male or female.
lang}}	Do not close the well after having drunk.	Do not mess up things after using them, you might need them tomorrow.
lang}}	Do not cut the tree in winter, you will burn by sun in summer.	Do not mess up things when you do not need them, you will suffer when you need them.
lang}}	An antelope is killed while is sighing.	A problem must be solved immediately.
lang}}	Chillness causes a girl to come back to her parents' house from her husband's house.	It is very cold.

Further reading

• Template:Citation

External links

Software and localisation

• PanAfriL10n page on Tsonga
• Tsonga on translatewiki.net
• Xitsonga Online Dictionary on Xitsonga.org discontinued in January 2024.