Varna (Hinduism)

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Template:Short description Template:Pp-extended Template:Italic title Template:Hinduism small Template:Use Indian English Template:Use dmy dates Varna (Template:Langx, Template:IPA), in the context of Hinduism,<ref name="Doniger 1999 186"/> refers to a social class within a hierarchical traditional Hindu society.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite QTemplate:ODNBsub</ref> The ideology of varna is epitomized in texts like Manusmriti,<ref name="Doniger 1999 186"/><ref name="Monier-Williams 2005 924"/><ref name="Malik 2005 p.48"/> which describes and ranks four varnas, and prescribes their occupations, requirements and duties, or Dharma.<ref name="Doniger 1999 186">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

This quadruple division is a form of social stratification, quite different from the more nuanced system of Jātis, which correspond to the term "caste".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The varna system is discussed in Hindu texts, and understood as idealised human callings.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref><ref name="Thapar">Template:Citation</ref> The concept is generally traced back to the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rigveda. In the post-Vedic period, the varna division is described in the Mahabharata, Puranas and in the Dharmashastra literatures.<ref name="Hiltebeitel 2011 529–531">Template:Harvp</ref>

The commentary on the Varna system in the Manusmriti is often cited.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Counter to these textual classifications, many Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with the Varna system of social classification.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

In India, communities that belong to one of the four varnas or classes are called savarna Hindus. The Dalits and tribals who do not belong to any varna were called avarna.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Chandra, Bipan (1989. India's Struggle for Independence, 1857-1947, pp. 230-231. Penguin Books India</ref><ref>Yājñika, Acyuta and Sheth, Suchitra (2005). The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond, p. 260. Penguin Books India</ref>

Etymology and origins

The term varna appears in the Rigveda, where it means "colour, outward appearance, exterior, form, figure or shape".<ref name="Monier-Williams 2005 924">Template:Cite book</ref> The term means "color, tint, dye or pigment" in the Mahabharata.<ref name="Monier-Williams 2005 924"/> Varna contextually means "colour, race, tribe, species, kind, sort, nature, character, quality, property" of an object or people in some Vedic and medieval texts.<ref name="Monier-Williams 2005 924"/> Varna refers to four social classes in the Manusmriti.<ref name="Monier-Williams 2005 924"/><ref name="Malik 2005 p.48">Template:Cite book</ref>

The Vedas

The earliest application to the formal division into four social classes (without using the term varna) appears in the late Rigvedic Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90.11–12), where the Brahman, Rajanya (instead of Kshatriya), Vaishya and Shudra classes are described as forming the mouth, arms, thighs and feet at the sacrifice of the primordial Purusha, respectively:<ref name=Basham>Template:Cite book</ref>

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Scholarly interpretation

Some modern indologists believe the Purusha Sukta to be a later addition, possibly as a charter myth.<ref name="Jamison 2014 57–58">Template:Cite book</ref> Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious Studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".<ref name="Jamison 2014 57–58"/>

Ram Sharan Sharma, in his book Śūdras in Ancient India (1990), states :Template:Quote

The Upanishads

The Chandogya Upanishad indicates that a person's varna is determined on the basis of their actions in their previous life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

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The Vajrasuchi Upanishad, however, states that the status of brahman is not based on birth, knowledge, or karma, but on the direct realisation of one's own Atman (inner self, soul).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

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The Epics

Mahabharata

The Mahabharata, estimated to have been completed by about the 4th century CE, discusses the Varna system in section 12.181.<ref name="Hiltebeitel 2011 529–531" />

The Epic offers two models on Varna. The first model describes Varna as colour-coded system, through a sage named Bhrigu, "Brahmins Varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black".<ref name="Hiltebeitel 2011 529–531" /> This description is questioned by another prominent sage Bharadwaja who says that colours are seen among all the Varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the Varnas, he asks? The Mahabharata then declares, according to Alf Hiltebeitel, a professor of religion, "There is no distinction of Varnas. This whole universe is Brahman. It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts."<ref name="Hiltebeitel 2011 529–531" />

The Mahabharata thereafter recites a behavioural model for Varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya Varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishyas; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudras. The Brahmin class is modelled in the epic, as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> Indeed, it goes on to assert that all men are children of Brahmins, which does not make sense, unless understood this way.In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognize, in theory, Varna is nongenealogical. The four Varnas are not lineages, but categories."<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita describes the professions, duties and qualities of members of different varnas.

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Puranas

The Brahma Purana states that acting against both varna and ashrama (stage), which together guide one's dharma, leads to hell.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Brahmanda Purana calls associations between low and high varnas signs of the Kali Yuga, the age of immorality and decline.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Dharmasastras

Template:See also The varna system is extensively discussed in the Dharma-shastras.<ref name="Olivelle 1998 189–216">Template:Harvp</ref> The Varna system in Dharma-shastras divides society into four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Shudras). Those who fall out of this system because of their grievous sins are ostracised as outcastes (untouchables) and considered outside the varna system.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref> Barbarians and those who are unrighteous or unethical are also considered outcastes.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

Recent scholarship suggests that the discussion of varna as well as untouchable outcastes in these texts does not resemble the modern era caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma-sutras and Dharma-shastras, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity-impurity as the basis for varna system.<ref name="Olivelle 2008 240–241">Template:Harvp</ref> According to Olivelle, purity-impurity is discussed in the Dharma-shastra texts, but only in the context of the individual's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, urination and defecation).<ref name="Olivelle 1998 189–216"/> In his review of Dharma-shastras, Olivelle writes, "we see no instance when a term of pure/impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste".<ref name="Olivelle 2008 240–241"/> The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna. These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people" and impure, declaring that they be ostracised.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity/impurity in the Dharma-sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation" and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance, stipulations, and ritualistic behaviours.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

Olivelle states: Template:Blockquote

The first three varnas are described in the Dharmashastras as "twice born" and they are allowed to study the Vedas. Such a restriction of who can study Vedas is not found in the Vedic era literature.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Manusmriti assigns cattle rearing as Vaishya occupation but historical evidence shows that Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Shudras also owned and reared cattle and that cattle-wealth was mainstay of their households. Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History and specialising in social exclusion in the Indian subcontinent, states that 19th century British records show that Chamars, listed as untouchables, also owned land and cattle and were active agriculturalists.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The emperors of Kosala and the prince of Kasi are other examples.<ref name="Kumar2002" />

Tim Ingold, an anthropologist, writes that the Manusmriti is a highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Susan Bayly states that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmin in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create the phenomenon of caste" in India.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Buddhist texts

Ancient Buddhist texts mention Varna system in South Asia, but the details suggest that it was non-rigid, flexible, non-hierarchal, and with characteristics devoid of features of a social stratification system.<ref name="masefield"/>

Digha Nikaya provides a discussion between Gotama Buddha and a Hindu Brahmin named Sonadanda who was very learned in the Vedas.<ref name="Walshe1995">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="rhysdavids">Template:Cite book</ref> Gotama Buddha asks, "By how many qualities do Brahmins recognize another Brahmin? How would one declare truthfully and without falling into falsehood, "I am a Brahmin?"<ref name="Walshe1995"/> Sonadanda initially lists five qualities as, "he is of pure descent on both the mother's and the father's side, he is well versed in mantras, he is of fair color handsome and pleasing, he is virtuous learned and wise, and he is the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle".<ref name="Walshe1995"/><ref name="rhysdavids"/> Buddha then asks the Brahmin, "If we omit one of these qualities you just listed, could not one be still a true Brahmin?" Sonadanda, one by one, eliminates fair colour and looks, then eliminates Varna in which one was born, and then eliminates the ability to recite mantra and do sacrifices as a requirement of being a Brahmin.<ref name="Walshe1995"/><ref name="rhysdavids"/> Sonadanda asserts that just two qualities are necessary to truthfully and without falling into falsehood identify a Brahmin; these two qualities are "being virtuous and being learned and wise".<ref name="Walshe1995"/><ref name="rhysdavids"/> Sonadanda adds that it is impossible to reduce the requirement for being a Brahmin any further, because "for wisdom is purified by morality, and morality is clarified by wisdom; where one is, the other is, the moral man has wisdom and the wise man has morality, and the combination of morality and wisdom is called the highest thing in the world".<ref name="Walshe1995"/> Brian Black and Dean Patton state Sonadanda admits after this, "we [Brahmins] only know this much Gotama; it would be well if Reverend Gotama would explain meaning of the two [morality, wisdom]".<ref name="Black2015">Template:Cite book</ref>

Peter Masefield,<ref name="masefield">Template:Cite book</ref> a Buddhism scholar and ancient Pali texts translator, states that during the Nikāya texts period of Buddhism (3rd century BC to 5th century AD), Varna as a class system is attested, but the described Varna was not a caste system. The Pali texts enumerate the four Varnas Brahmin, "Kshatriya",Vessa (Vaishya) and Sudda (Shudra).<ref name="masefield"/> Masefield notes that people in any Varna could in principle perform any profession. The early Buddhist texts, for instance, identify some Brahmins to be farmers and in other professions. The text state that anyone, of any birth, could perform the priestly function,<ref name="masefield"/> and that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown. The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated in ancient India. Masefield concludes, "if any form of caste system was known during the Nikaya period - and it is doubtful that it was - this was in all probability restricted to certain non-Aryan groups".<ref name="masefield"/>

Jain texts

Ādi purāṇa, an 8th-century text of Jainism by Jinasena, is the earliest mention of Varna and Jati in Jainism literature.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> Jinasena does not trace the origin of Varna system to Rigveda or to Purusha Sukta, instead traces varna to the Bharata legend. According to this legend, Bharata performed an "ahimsa-test" (test of non-violence), and those members of his community who refused to harm or hurt any living being were called as the priestly varna in ancient India, and Bharata called them dvija, twice born.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> Jinasena states that those who are committed to ahimsa are deva-Brāhmaṇas, divine Brahmins.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

The text Adi purana also discusses the relationship between varna and jati. According to Padmanabh Jaini, a professor of Indic studies, Jainism and Buddhism, the Adi purana text states "there is only one jati called manusyajati or the human caste, but divisions arise account of their different professions".<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> The varna of Kshatriya arose when Rishabh procured weapons to serve the society and assumed the powers of a king, while Vaishya and Shudra varna arose from different means of livelihood in which they specialised.<ref>Template:Harvp</ref>

Sikh texts

Sikhism is a late 15th-century religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. Sikh texts mention Varna as Varan, and Jati as Zat or Zat-biradari. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and specialising in Christian, Hindu and Sikh studies, states that the Varan is described as a class system in 18th- to 20th-century Sikh literature, while Zat reflected the endogamous occupational groups (caste).<ref name="Nesbitt2005b">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Sikh texts authored by the Sikh Gurus and by non-Sikh Bhagats such as the Namdev, Ravidas and Kabir, states Nesbitt, declared the irrelevance of varan or zat of one's birth to one's spiritual destiny. They taught that "all of humanity had a single refuge" and that the divine teaching is for everyone.<ref name="Nesbitt2005b"/> Sikhism teaches a society without any varan.<ref name=singha42>Template:Cite book</ref> In practice, states Harjot Oberoi, secondary Sikh texts such as the Khalsa Dharam Sastar in 1914 argued that the entry of certain Sikh castes into major Sikh shrines should be barred.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Similarly, in practice and its texts, the Gurus of Sikhism did not condemn or break with the convention of marrying (and marrying off their children) within the jati, and all the Sikh Gurus were Khatri, had Khatri wives and practiced arranged marriages within their zat.<ref name="Nesbitt2005b"/><ref>Template:Cite book;
Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Dhavan, the Rahit-namas and other prescriptive Sikh texts from mid-18th century onwards accommodate and affirm the "natal and marriage traditions of different caste groups within the Sikh community".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ravidassi Sikhs and Ramgarhia Sikhs follow their own textual and festive traditions, gather in their own places of worship.<ref name="Nesbitt2005b"/><ref name="ravidassiareligion1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=paramjitjudge181>Template:Citation</ref> These are varan-based (caste-based) religious congregations that emerged from Sikhism, states Nesbitt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Ravidassia group, for example, emphasizes the teachings of Bhagat Ravidas – a poet-saint born in a family whose traditional untouchable occupation related to dead animals and leather.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="ravidassiareligion1"/> They consider the teachings of living Gurus and the texts of Ravidass Dera as sacred and spiritually as important as the historic Sikh Gurus. This is rejected by Khalsa Sikhs. The disagreements have led the Ravidassia Sikhs to launch the Ravidassia religion movement which, amongst other things seeks to replace the Guru Granth Sahib in their Gurdwaras with the texts of Ravidas.<ref name="ravidassiareligion1"/><ref name="JacobsenMyrvold2011">Template:Cite book</ref>

Varna and jāti

Template:Main The terms varna (theoretical classification based on occupation) and jāti (caste) are two distinct concepts. Jāti (community) refers to the thousands of endogamous groups prevalent across the subcontinent. A jati may be divided into exogamous groups based on the same gotras. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas; even Indologists sometimes confuse the two.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Hierarchical order

Hindu texts claim Brahmins are supreme in Varnas hierarchical order, while opposite to Hindu tradition Jain and Buddhist texts assert Kshatriyas hold the highest status.Template:Citation needed During the Buddha period, Kshatriyas elevated themselves as the first Varna.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Buddhist literature includes stories reflecting this belief, King Arindama called a priest son a man of low birth (hīnajacca), and the King of Kosala used a screen while speaking to his Brahmin employee to avoid seeing their face. Similarly, the Sakyas laughed at a Brahmin who entered their Mote Hall, pushed him back with a finger, and did not offer him a seat.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

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References

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Bibliography

Further reading

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