Vikos–Aoös National Park
Template:Short description Template:Distinguish Template:Good article Template:Infobox protected area The Vikos–Aoös National Park (Template:Langx Ethnikós Drymós Víkou–Aóou) is a national park in the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece. The park, founded in 1973, is one of ten national parks in mainland Greece and is located Template:Convert north of the city of Ioannina in the northern part of the Pindus mountain range. It is named after the two major gorges of the area and encompasses Template:Convert of mountainous terrain, with numerous rivers, lakes, caves, deep canyons, dense coniferous and deciduous forest. The park is part of the Natura 2000 ecological network and one of UNESCO Geoparks and spans an elevation range from Template:Convert.<ref name= Trakolis3/> Over 100,000 people visit the park each year and take part in activities including rafting, canoe-kayaking, hiking and mountain biking.<ref name=prefectur20/>
The core of the park, an area of Template:Convert,<ref name= Trakolis3/> comprises the spectacular Vikos Gorge, carved by the Voidomatis river. The gorge's main part is Template:Convert long, which attains a depth of Template:Convert, and has a width ranging from 2500 m to only a few meters at its narrowest part. The Aoös gorge, Mt Tymphe (Template:Convert at Gamila peak), and a number of traditionally preserved settlements form the park's peripheral zone. The park's remoteness and relatively small human population, combined with the great variation of biotopes and microclimatic conditions favors the existence of a rich variety of flora (1,800 species) in the area.<ref>Spanopoulou 2001, p. 16</ref><ref name=natura8>Natura 2000, p. 8</ref> Vikos–Aoös National Park supports a wide diversity of fauna,<ref name=Amanatidou28>Amanatidou 2005, p. 28</ref> with a plethora of large mammals such as the brown bear, for which the park is one of the last European strongholds, and a variety of natural habitats and ecosystems that rank it among the most valuable parks for nature conservation in Greece.<ref>Papageorgiou 2001, p. 3</ref>
The first evidence of human presence in the area is dated between 17,000 and 10,000 years ago. The area of the park has been sparsely populated throughout historical times, however from the 17th to the 19th century the local communities of Zagori acquired an autonomous status, flourished economically due to increased trade, and became a major center of folk medicine.<ref name=Vokou1/> In recent decades, ecotourism is seen as a remedy to the economic decline of heavily depopulated local settlements, while preserving the natural environment and local architecture.<ref name=Amanatidou41/>
Geography and geology
Vikos Gorge
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The Vikos Gorge is located on the southern slopes of Mt Tymphe.<ref name=Amanatidou21/> Its main part is located between the villages of Vikos and Monodendri and attains a depth of about Template:Convert,<ref name="Amanatidou 2005, p. 17">Amanatidou 2005, p. 17</ref> with a southeast–northwest direction.<ref name=natura8/> The landscape of the Template:Convert long gorge, Template:Convert which belongs to the park's core zone,<ref name= Hanlidou2>Hanlidou, Kokkini 1997, p. 2</ref> presents a diverse relief and is characterized by abrupt changes in altitude. At one point the gorge measures Template:Convert deep and Template:Convert wide from rim to rim, and as a result is listed by the Guinness Book of Records as the deepest canyon in the world in proportion to its width,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> though some gorge lobbyists contest that claim.<ref name=Hellander>Template:Cite book</ref> Steep slopes and precipitous rocky cliffs dominate in the middle and higher zones respectively. Numerous gullies dissect both sides of the gorge and the weathering action of water down its walls creates extended screes.<ref name=Amanatidou21/>
The Vikos Gorge has been carved over millions of years by the Voidomatis river, a tributary of the Aoös. The Voidomatis is mostly seasonal, with year-round flow occurring only in the lower part of the gorge.<ref name=Amanatidou21>Amanatidou 2005, p. 21</ref> Due to its nature, the area of the gorge is precipitous and impassable most of the year.<ref>Natura 2000, p. 10</ref>
As the Vikos Gorge is a deep cross section of the mountain, its slopes expose a series of rock formations of various ages. The upper layers, at a depth of 0–Template:Convert, consist of relatively young Eocene limestone, at a depth of Template:Convert–Template:Convert they consist of a stratum from the Campanian era, while below Template:Convert they consist of Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone. In the deepest layers, grey Jurassic dolomite is dominant.<ref name=Amanatidou21/> Sedimentary and lithological investigation in the Voidomatis basin revealed that the innermost alluvial deposits consist of limestone-derived material, carried by the Voidomatis river from higher elevations by glacial action about 30,000 years ago. The subsequent (middle) deposits are the product of de-glaciation and the extended run-off from the uplands about 20,000 years ago, while the outer unit is attributed to human activities associated with pastoralism, which caused extended deforestation and soil erosion.<ref name=Amanatidou32>Amanatidou p. 32</ref> The Voidomatis basin contains evidence for three major phases of glaciation, with the two largest and earliest taking place during the Middle Pleistocene.<ref>Woodward, Hamlin, Macklin, Hughes, Lewin 2008, p. 64</ref> The final phase of glacial activity probably occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum, between 22,000 and 20,000 ago.<ref name=Woodwar49/>
A special feature of the limestone, resulting from its weathering by water, is its karstic nature.<ref name=Amanatidou2122>Amanatidou 2005, pp. 21–22</ref> During the large Middle Pleistocene glaciations, surface runoff from glacial meltwaters would have fed directly into the river channel network because much of the upland limestone terrain was covered by ice, and many conduits in the karst would have been choked with sediment or permanently frozen. As a result, the glacier snouts came close to the modern valley bottoms. In contrast, during interglacial and interstadial periods, more effective coupling occurred between the surface drainage network and the internal karst drainage system.<ref>Woodward, Hamlin, Macklin, Hughes, Lewin 2008, p. 63</ref> Since limestone dissolves as the water percolates through its pores, an extended underground drainage system has developed, with caves and channels that enlarge with time when their roofs collapse, producing rocky exposures and perpendicular slopes, which is also the reason why the water is scarce. Only when an impenetrable stratum is met, does water appear on the surface.<ref name=Amanatidou2122/>
Aoös Gorge
In the northern part of the Park, and very close to the town of Konitsa,<ref name=natura8/> the Aoös river passes through channels formed by the bulges of the nearby mountains of Trapezitsa Template:Convert, Mt Tymphe and Raidovouni Template:Convert, creating the Aoös Gorge that is Template:Convert long. It has an east–west direction and features numerous stone single-arched bridges from the 17th to 19th centuries, as well as monasteries built in the local architectural style.<ref>Papadopoulou 2008, p. 12, 18, 20</ref> It is characterized by the great number of secondary gullies and currents,<ref name= Hanlidou2/> while the southern part of the gorge is steeper than the northern part. Deep and steep ravines within the perpendicular walls carry down into the Aoös large quantities of material resulting from limestone-weathering.<ref>Paschos, Nikolaou, Papanikos 2004, p. 18</ref> The compact dolomites that lie on the bottom of the gorge date to the Early Jurassic period and are the oldest rock formations in the Park. Their age has been determined by means of sea fossils found inside them.<ref>Paschos, Nikolaou, Papanikos 2004, p. 7</ref>
Mt Tymphe
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Between the two gorges lies the Tymphe mountain range. Its highest peaks are Gamila Template:Convert, Astraka Template:Convert, Ploskos Template:Convert, and Lapatos Template:Convert.<ref name= Hanlidou2/> A unique feature of this area is natural pools formed by the erosion of local stream beds.<ref name=Pashos15/> A number of alpine lakes are found in the high-altitude zone of Mt Tymphe, surrounded by alpine pasture, which are home to several rare amphibian species. The biggest lake of the National Park, Drakolimni ("Dragonlake"), a formation that was created after the retreat of the glaciers,<ref name=Pashos15>Paschos, Nikolaou, Papanikos 2004, p. 15</ref> is located at a height of Template:Convert on Mt Tymphe. Its maximum depth is Template:Convert, while its surface covers Template:Convert.<ref name="Denoel">Template:Cite journal</ref>
A number of vertical caves and precipices are found in the area around the village of Papingo, which lies near the Gamila and Astraka peaks. Some of them bear names inspired from mythology, such as the Hole of Odysseus and Chasm of Epos. These are being studied and explored by caving enthusiasts. The cave of "Provatina" ("Ewe's Cave"), with a depth of Template:Convert, one of the deepest worldwide, was first discovered in 1965 by British speleologists of the Cambridge University Caving Club, and has since then been surveyed by a large number of expeditions. The nearby Chasm of Epos, with a depth of Template:Convert, drains the water coming from the surrounding plateaus.<ref name=Paschos16>Paschos, Nikolaou, Papanikos 2004, p. 16</ref>
Mt Tymphe represents a series of uplifted fault blocks and faulted escarpments and is largely composed of Palaeocene-Eocene limestone, with some exposures of Campanian-Jurassic dolomite and limestone on the northern scarp. The lower slopes are dominated by younger flysch rocks, which consist of thin beds of graded sandstones intercalated with softer, fissile siltstones.<ref>Hughes, Gibbard, Woodward 2003, p. 2</ref> Extended glacial conditions prevailed on the uplands of Mt Tymphe during the Late Quaternary period, ca. 28,000 years ago.<ref name=Amanatidou32/> The glacial landscape is well-developed, especially on the southern slopes of Mt Tymphe, across the Astraka-Gamila plateau, and in the upland terrain above the villages of Skamneli and Tsepelovo, where lateral and terminal moraines form major landscape features.<ref>Woodward, Hamlin, Macklin, Hughes, Lewin 2008, p. 8</ref> Additional forms of glacial deposits, which extend down to Template:Convert above sea level,<ref>Hughes, Gibbard, Woodward 2003, p. 3</ref> include rock glaciers and limestone pavements.<ref name=Woodwar49>Woodward, Hamlin, Macklin, Hughes, Lewin 2008, p. 49</ref>
Settlements
There are four villages inside the Vikos–Aoös National Park, and an additional nine near the borders of the peripheral zone. All of these settlements, in the western part of the Zagori region, are sparsely populated with a total population of 1,515 people.<ref name="Trakolis 2-3"/> The villages have a nucleus-like form, with the houses situated around the central square and interconnected by pathways paved by slate or cobblestone.<ref>Amanatidou 2005, p. 36</ref> Historically, all the villages of the Zagori region were connected by a system of paths or small roads and they functioned more like a single entity rather than as separate communities.<ref>Vokou, Katradia, Kokkini 1993, p. 8</ref>
The economic affluence of Zagori's past is still reflected in the architecture of the villages,<ref name=Vokou1/> while today the preservation of the local architectural legacy is enshrined in a law which dictates that all buildings in the area must be constructed with local traditional materials and in compliance with local architecture. One of the characteristic features of the National Park is its stone bridges, which were the only connection to the outside world until roads were built in the 1950s.<ref>Drakopoulou 2004, p. 27</ref> Sixteen of these stone bridges and seven churches in the region have been listed as protected historical monuments.<ref>Spanopoulou 2001, p. 17</ref>
Climate
The climate of the Vikos–Aoös National Park is Mediterranean, transitioning to continental. The Mediterranean character is characterized by the annual distribution of precipitation, high in the winter months and experiencing a drought period of two to three months in summer. The continental climatic element is attributed to the high amplitude of annual temperature variation, to such a degree that the difference between mean maximum and mean minimum annual temperature, exceeds Template:Convert.<ref name=Amanatidou2324/> The climate of the area is quite unique due to the complex relief, variation in altitude, and the position of the area with regard to the Ionian Sea coastline.<ref>Paschos, Nikolaou, Papanikos 2004, p. 5</ref> The mean annual temperature and annual precipitation are Template:Convert and Template:Convert respectively. Extremely low temperatures occur in the area during the winter months. Compared to Mediterranean bioclimatic divisions, the area belongs to the humid zone with cold winters.<ref name=Amanatidou2324>Amanatidou 2005, pp. 23–24</ref><ref name="hnms">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Wildlife
The park's varied geology and topography have resulted in a unique variety of flora and fauna. There are three main habitat zones:<ref>Amanatidou 2005, pp. 29–31</ref> (1) Sub-mediterranean woodland which mainly consists of deciduous broadleaf forests and woodlands and extends up to an elevation of about Template:Convert. (2) Combined areas of agricultural land with tree hedges and various woodlots, in addition to semi-open shrublands and rocky sites of the lower and middle slopes near human settlements. (3) Uplands with subalpine grasslands and rocky cliffs. This habitat is found above Template:Convert altitude and hosts rare bird species such as the Mediterranean golden eagle.
Flora
The forests are composed of diverse species of deciduous and coniferous trees and a great variety of wildflowers. An important element of the region's flora, apart from the rich variety of plant species, is the high degree of endemism in Balkan (23%) and Greek species (5.8%).<ref>Amanatidou 2005, p. 27</ref> Recent studies on the flora of the National Park counted 873 vascular plants, including more than 250 medicinal, aromatic, and poisonous taxa. The park's forests are abundant in species associated with the cool local climate, such as Wych Elm, Nettle-leaved Bellflower, Horse-chestnut and Large-leaved Linden.<ref>Amanatidou 2005, p. 84</ref> In the valley of the Vikos Gorge, Platanus orientalis form an azonal gallery forest along the banks of the Voidomatis.<ref>Amanatidou 2005, p. 80</ref> The woodland in the mountain area around the village of Papingo is characterized by the predominance of different juniper species, such as Juniperus communis, foetidissima, oxycedrus and excelsa. In the upper hills Juniperus foetidissima dominates, with exceptionally high (more than Template:Convert) trees. At higher altitudes, pure conifer forests of either pine or fir are found.<ref>Vokou, Katradia, Kokkini 1993, p. 10</ref>
Studies on the non-vascular flora recorded the presence of about 150 moss species in the area of the national park, including one newly described taxon.<ref name=Amanatidou28/> Many herbs of the Vikos Gorge and other areas within the park were regarded to have medicinal properties and were once harvested by local healers, colloquially referred to as "Vikos doctors" (Template:Langx, "Vikoiatri").<ref name="Hanlidou">Hanlidou, Kokkini 1997, p. 1</ref> These herbal healers used special recipes that were often copies of ancient Greek recipes of Hippocrates or Dioscorides and became famous beyond the borders of Greece.<ref>Vokou, Katradia, Kokkini 1993, p. 1,8</ref> The plants used in these recipes include the lemon balm Melissa officinalis, Tilia tomentosa, the spearmint Mentha spicata, the gas-plant Dictamnus albus, St John's Wort Hypericum perforatum, absinth Artemisia absinthium, the very popular Sideritis raeseri, known colloquially in Greece as “mountain tea”, and the elder bush Sambucus nigra.<ref>Vokou, Katradia, Kokkini 1993, pp. 3–8</ref> A chemical screening of these native plant species has shown that a high number of them are characterized by biologically active ingredients.<ref name="Hanlidou"/> A collection of 2,500 dried species of local plants and herbs is exhibited in the local natural history museum in the village of Koukouli.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Fauna
The Vikos–Aoös National Park preserves one of the richest mountain and forest ecosystems in terms of wildlife diversity in Greece.<ref name=Amanatidou28/> Numerous species of large mammals such as wolves, foxes, wild horses, and roe deer are found in the area year-round. Otters and wild cats live around the area of Mt Tymphe, with the latter being quite rare.<ref name= Trakolis3/><ref name="Amanatidou29"/> The Pindus range, of which Vikos–Aoös is part, is home to the endangered brown bear and lynx, and is also the southernmost point of their European habitat.<ref name=Natura9>Natura 2000: p. 9</ref> One of the park's special attractions is the existence of the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), a rare species that lives at higher altitudes far from human activity, especially on the rocky cliffsides of the gorges,<ref name=Natura9/> for example in Megas Lakos, a secondary ravine of the Vikos Gorge.<ref name="Amanatidou29">Amanatidou 2005, p. 29</ref><ref>Drakopoulou 2004, p. 26</ref>
A total of 121 bird species have been observed in the park, with twenty-six of them being considered of conservation priority. The area hosts fifteen raptor species and populations of bird species with limited distribution in Greece, such as the hazel grouse, Tengmalm's owl, wallcreeper and willow tit. Two bird communities that inhabit the subalpine and forest ecosystems are considered among the most complete in Greece:<ref name="Amanatidou28"/> The first community includes species that nest and feed in the subalpine area, like the alpine chough, shore lark, western rock nuthatch and alpine swift, while the second comprises birds of prey like the griffon vulture, Egyptian vulture, peregrine falcon and common kestrel, that search for food in a wider zone.<ref>Amanatidou 2005, p. 31</ref>
The Vikos-Aoös area also contains a variety of suitable habitats that support dense populations of amphibians and reptiles. Vipera ursinii lives in the subalpine meadows and is considered a threatened taxon.<ref name=Natura9/> The amphibian alpine newts (Triturus alpestris), living in the alpine lakes of the Tymphe region, mostly in Drakolimni, are associated with local folktales of dragons and dragon battles.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Yellow-bellied toads (Bombina variegata) are also common in that same area.<ref name="Denoel"/> Numerous fish, such as brown trout, roach, and barbel are to be found in the park's rivers.<ref name= Trakolis3/> Regarding invertebrate species, due to the structural complexity of the forests and the close proximity of various small biotopes, i.e. streams, ponds, forest openings, rocky sites, dead trees, old pollards, and coppices, a very diverse fauna exists, especially at the various ecotones, which often includes very specialized species.<ref name="Amanatidou29"/>
Human history
The first evidence of human presence in the area is dated to between 17,000 and 10,000 years ago. During this period, favorable climatic conditions prevailed that permitted the hunting of the ibex and the chamois on a seasonal basis.<ref name=Amanatidou32/> Important epipaleolithic artifacts have been unearthed from a rock shelter on the banks of the Voidomatis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> During the 9th–4th centuries B.C., a small Molossian settlement existed between Monodendri and Vitsa, including stone houses and two cemeteries that have yielded important findings.<ref>Papadopoulou 2008, p. 14</ref> However, for most of the historical period the local population was sparse. The land was mainly used for pastoralism and supplying firewood.<ref name=Amanatidou34>Amanatidou 2005, p. 34</ref>
In the era of Ottoman rule, and especially from the 17th to the 19th century, the local Greek Orthodox communities were granted special privileges by the Ottoman authorities. At that time the area of Zagori acquired an autonomous status inside the Ottoman Empire, whereby the locals were exempt from the heavy taxation that affected the lowland communities.<ref name=Amanatidou34/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> During this period large groups of villagers emigrated to metropolitan centers. Many among them became members of successful professional classes before finally returning to their home villages, endowing the region with wealth and building luxurious mansions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In such an environment, the art of herbal healing by the so-called Vikos doctors developed and flourished. This was accompanied by an impressive cultural and intellectual life that produced many renowned scholars and benefactors of Greece.<ref name=Vokou1>Vokou, Katradia, Kokkini 1993, p. 1</ref>
The area is nowadays sparsely populated as the result of urbanization after World War II. Many of the dwellings now remain shut, while abandonment of the traditional rural economy has affected the cultural landscape.<ref name="Amanatidou 2005, p. 17"/> Epirus, of which Vikos–Aoös is part, is considered one of the most underdeveloped regions in Greece. Tourism constitutes the principal source of revenue for the local economy, although it has a highly seasonal character. Intense development in terms of accommodation and tourism infrastructure occurred in the 1980s, mainly through state initiatives.<ref name="Drakopoulou: p. 28"/>
Park management
The Vikos–Aoös area was designated as a National Park in 1973, in an effort by the Greek Government to conserve the richness of the local fauna and flora and the geological formations of the area.<ref name= Trakolis3>Trakolis 2001, p. 3</ref>
The administration and management of the Vikos–Aoös National Park belongs to two district forest offices, supervised by a forest directorate at the prefecture level. Moreover, the office of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in the village of Papingo plays an essential role in management issues.<ref name="Drakopoulou: p. 28">Drakopoulou 2004, p. 28</ref> Apart from government efforts, incentives have been given to local management organizations and the local population to participate in the protection of the park. Forestry activities, grazing, hunting, and fishing are prohibited by law in the park's core. There are no such restrictions in the peripheral zone but the Forest Service can take any necessary measure for the realization of the aims of the park.<ref name="Trakolis 2-3">Trakolis 2001, pp. 2–3</ref> Apart from the above-mentioned activities, dangers to the park include land erosion, landslides, and wildfires which threaten the local flora and fauna. Another issue is the impact of tourism in recent decades. On the other hand, extreme geophysical conditions make the construction and maintenance of the necessary infrastructure network, mainly access routes and telecommunications, difficult.<ref name=petrakis/>
The vast area of the National Park and the present lack of road infrastructure make remote sensing the only means for monitoring the human activities in the area and their impact on the ecosystem. An analysis has begun by taking a detailed picture of the territory covering at least the following items: orography and slopes, road networks, land cover and use, human settlements, and tourist sites. The use of remote sensing and geographic information system techniques is of essential value for the park's management and constitutes the basis for further evaluations and impact analysis.<ref name=petrakis>Template:Cite journal Template:Dead link</ref>
The objective of the present state and regional policy is to carefully combine tourism development in the area with the preservation of its natural and cultural heritage. Ecotourism poses an ideal solution, since it has the potential of bringing about the desired balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection.<ref name="Drakopoulou: p. 28"/> Specific objectives of ecotourism development include reviving traditional activities such as small-scale farming and stock-raising,<ref>Drakopoulou 2004, p. 29</ref> as well as establishing a network of communities of chamois biotopes.<ref>Drakopoulou 2004, p. 31</ref>
Recreation
The Vikos–Aoös National Park is a natural tourist attraction, with high ecotourism and agrotourism potential.<ref name="Trakolis11">Trakolis 2001, p. 11</ref> The local tourism industry has been favored by national and European funds and provides modest accommodation and tourism services, respectful towards the local tradition and culture.<ref name=Amanatidou41>Amanatidou 2005, p. 41</ref> Characteristically, the Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe (FNNPE) stated that "the need for a sustainable form of tourism has never been greater in the area".<ref name="Trakolis11"/>
The rivers in the Vikos–Aoös area are a destination for rafting and canoe-kayaking enthusiasts. Additional forms of adventure sports include climbing, hiking and mountain biking along local paths in order to observe the area's natural features and architecture.<ref name=prefectur20>Papadopoulou 2008, p. 20</ref><ref name="Drakopoulou: p. 28"/> Popular trails in the region include the crossing of the Vikos Gorge, which lasts approximately six to seven hours and is considered of medium difficulty, as well as hiking around the peaks of Mt Tymphe.<ref>Paschos, Nikolaou, Papanikos 2004, p. 9</ref> Several lookouts that offer panoramic views of the Vikos Gorge, such as the Oxya and Beloe lookouts and the 15th century Monastery of Saint Paraskevi, are accessible only by foot.<ref name=Hellander/>
Gallery
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See also
References
Sources
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Further reading
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External links
Template:National parks of Greece Template:Villages of Zagori