Washo language

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Template:Short description Template:Use mdy dates Template:InfoboxTemplate:Main other{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check |unknown=Template:Main other |preview=Page using Template:Infobox language with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| acceptance | agency | aiatsis | aiatsis2 | aiatsis3 | aiatsis4 | aiatsis5 | aiatsis6 | aiatsisname | aiatsisname2 | aiatsisname3 | aiatsisname4 | aiatsisname5 | aiatsisname6 | altname | ancestor | ancestor2 | ancestor3 | ancestor4 | ancestor5 | ancestor6 | ancestor7 | ancestor8 | ancestor9 | ancestor10 | ancestor11 | ancestor12 | ancestor13 | ancestor14 | ancestor15 | boxsize | coordinates | coords | created | creator | date | dateprefix | development_body | dia1 | dia2 | dia3 | dia4 | dia5 | dia6 | dia7 | dia8 | dia9 | dia10 | dia11 | dia12 | dia13 | dia14 | dia15 | dia16 | dia17 | dia18 | dia19 | dia20 | dia21 | dia22 | dia23 | dia24 | dia25 | dia26 | dia27 | dia28 | dia29 | dia30 | dia31 | dia32 | dia33 | dia34 | dia35 | dia36 | dia37 | dia38 | dia39 | dia40 | dialect_label | dialects | ELP | ELP2 | ELP3 | ELP4 | ELP5 | ELP6 | ELPname | ELPname2 | ELPname3 | ELPname4 | ELPname5 | ELPname6 | era | ethnicity | extinct | fam1 | fam2 | fam3 | fam4 | fam5 | fam6 | fam7 | fam8 | fam9 | fam10 | fam11 | fam12 | fam13 | fam14 | fam15 | family | familycolor | fontcolor | glotto | glotto2 | glotto3 | glotto4 | glotto5 | glottoname | glottoname2 | glottoname3 | glottoname4 | glottoname5 | glottopedia | glottorefname | glottorefname2 | glottorefname3 | glottorefname4 | glottorefname5 | guthrie | ietf | image | imagealt | imagecaption | imagescale | iso1 | iso1comment | iso2 | iso2b | iso2comment | iso2t | iso3 | iso3comment | iso6 | isoexception | lc1 | lc2 | lc3 | lc4 | lc5 | lc6 | lc7 | lc8 | lc9 | lc10 | lc11 | lc12 | lc13 | lc14 | lc15 | lc16 | lc17 | lc18 | lc19 | lc20 | lc21 | lc22 | lc23 | lc24 | lc25 | lc26 | lc27 | lc28 | lc29 | lc30 | lc31 | lc32 | lc33 | lc34 | lc35 | lc36 | lc37 | lc38 | lc39 | lc40 | ld1 | ld2 | ld3 | ld4 | ld5 | ld6 | ld7 | ld8 | ld9 | ld10 | ld11 | ld12 | ld13 | ld14 | ld15 | ld16 | ld17 | ld18 | ld19 | ld20 | ld21 | ld22 | ld23 | ld24 | ld25 | ld26 | ld27 | ld28 | ld29 | ld30 | ld31 | ld32 | ld33 | ld34 | ld35 | ld36 | ld37 | ld38 | ld39 | ld40 | linglist | linglist2 | linglist3 | linglist4 | linglist5 | linglist6 | lingname | lingname2 | lingname3 | lingname4 | lingname5 | lingname6 | lingua | lingua2 | lingua3 | lingua4 | lingua5 | lingua6 | lingua7 | lingua8 | lingua9 | lingua10 | linguaname | linguaname2 | linguaname3 | linguaname4 | linguaname5 | linguaname6 | linguaname7 | linguaname8 | linguaname9 | linguaname10 | listclass | liststyle | map | map2 | mapalt | mapalt2 | mapcaption | mapcaption2 | mapscale | minority | module | name | nation | nativename | notice | notice2 | official | posteriori | pronunciation | protoname | pushpin_image | pushpin_label | pushpin_label_position | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption | pushpin_mapsize | qid | ref | refname | region | revived | revived-cat | revived-category | script | setting | sign | signers | speakers | speakers_label | speakers2 | stand1 | stand2 | stand3 | stand4 | stand5 | stand6 | standards | state | states }}<templatestyles src="Template:Infobox/styles-images.css" /> Template:Infobox ethnonym Washo or Washoe (Template:IPAc-en;<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh</ref> endonym Template:Lang<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>) is an endangered Native American language isolate spoken by the Washo on the California–Nevada border in the drainages of the Truckee and Carson Rivers, especially around Lake Tahoe. While there were only 20 elderly native speakers of Washo as of 2011,<ref name=Golla>Victor Golla (2011) California Indian Languages</ref> since 1994 there had been a small immersion school that has produced a number of moderately fluent younger speakers. The immersion school has since closed its doors and the language program operates through the Cultural Resource Department for the Washoe Tribe. The language remains very endangered; however, there has been a renaissance in the language revitalization movement as many of the students who attended the original immersion school have become teachers.

Ethnographic Washo speakers belonged to the Great Basin culture area and they were the only non-Numic group of that area.<ref>d'Azevedo 1986</ref> The language has borrowed from the neighboring Uto-Aztecan, Maiduan and Miwokan languages and is connected to both the Great Basin and Northern California sprachbunds.

History

In 2012, Lakeview Commons Park in South Lake Tahoe was renamed in the Washo language. "The Washoe Tribe has presented the name Template:Lang (pronounced approx. Template:IPA) which, in native language, means "all the people's place." It is a name the Tribe would like to gift to El Dorado County and South Lake Tahoe as a symbol of peace, prosperity and goodness."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Classification

Washo is usually considered a language isolate.<ref>Lyle Campbell. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. (1997, Oxford, pg. 125).
Marianne Mithun. The Languages of Native North America (1999, Cambridge, pg. 557)</ref> That is, it shares no demonstrated link with any other language, including its three direct neighboring languages, Northern Paiute (a Numic language of Uto-Aztecan), Maidu (Maiduan), and Sierra Miwok (Utian). It is sometimes classified as a Hokan language, but this language family is not universally accepted among specialists, nor is Washo's connection to it.<ref name="washoetribe.us">WA SHE SHU: "The Washoe People", Past and Present. The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California</ref>

The language was first described in A Grammar of the Washo Language by William H. Jacobsen, Jr., in a University of California, Berkeley, PhD dissertation and this remains the sole complete description of the language. There is no significant dialect variation. (Jacobsen's lifelong work with Washo is described at the University of Nevada Oral History Program.)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Dialects

Washo shows very little geographic variation. Jacobsen (1986:108) wrote, "When there are two variants of a feature, generally one is found in a more northerly area and the other in a more southerly one, but the lines separating the two areas for the different features do not always coincide."

Phonology

Vowels

There are six distinct vowel qualities found in the Washo language, each of which occurs long and short. The sound quality of a vowel is dependent upon their length and the consonant they precede, as well as the stress put on the vowel.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Washo vowels<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Orthography IPA Example
á or a
á꞉ or a꞉ 		Template:IPAslink
Template:IPA 		Template:Lang 'one'
Template:Lang 'sagebrush'
é or e
é꞉ or e꞉ 		Template:IPAslink
Template:IPA 		Template:Lang 'his rib'
Template:Lang 'boy'
í or i
í꞉ or i꞉ 		Template:IPAslink
Template:IPA 		Template:Lang 'my car'
Template:Lang 'bird'
ó or o
ó꞉ or o꞉ 		Template:IPAslink
Template:IPA 		Template:Lang 'golden currant'
Template:Lang 'robin'
ú or u
ú꞉ or u꞉ 		Template:IPAslink
Template:IPA 		Template:Lang 'owl'
Template:Lang 'sunflower'
ɨ
ɨ: 		Template:IPAslink
Template:IPA 		Template:Lang (spider)
ay Template:Lang (fawn)
ey Template:Lang (to pay; younger brother [used in context])

Vowels marked with the acute accent ( ´ ) are pronounced with stress, such as in the Washo Template:Lang (summer).

In Washo, vowels can have either long or short length qualities; the longer quality is noted by appending a colon Template:Angle bracket to the vowel, as in the above example Template:Lang. Vowels with such a mark are usually pronounced for twice the normal length. This can be seen in the difference between the words Template:Lang (shoes) Template:Lang (knee). However, vowels pronounced this way may not always be followed by a colon.

Jacobsen described in detail various vowel alternations that distinguished the Washo speech communities.<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref>

Consonants

Sequences not represented by a single letter in Washo almost always tend to occur in borrowed English words, such as the nd in Template:Lang (candy).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Washoe Language Lessons</ref>

Washo consonants
Orthography IPA Example
p Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'pus'; Template:Lang 'my body'; Template:Lang 'wet place'
t Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'miwak';Template:What Template:Lang 'his knife'; Template:Lang 'magpie'
k Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'cave'; Template:Lang 'decayed tooth'; Template:Lang 'ammunition'
ʔ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'lake'; Template:Lang
pꞌ or pʼ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'in the valley'; Template:Lang 'his lungs'
tꞌ or tʼ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'pinenut'; Template:Lang 'magpie'
ć or cʼ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'chokecherry'; Template:Lang 'my chin'
kꞌ or kʼ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'it's roaring'; Template:Lang 'heron'
b Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'ammunition'; Template:Lang 'sagebrush'
d Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'sagebrush'; Template:Lang 'bed'
z Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'a type of bird'
g Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'a type of bird'; Template:Lang 'pinenut'
s Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'dog'; Template:Lang 'again'; Template:Lang 'antelope'
š Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'white fir'; Template:Lang 'my mother's sister'; Template:Lang 'bread'
h Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'three'; Template:Lang 'they are standing'
m Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'conical burden basket, used for pine nuts'; Template:Lang 'muskrat'; Template:Lang 'pinenut'
n Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'golden currant'; Template:Lang 'ant'
ŋ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'child'
l Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'one'; Template:Lang 'bread'; Template:Lang 'pus'
w Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'bread'; Template:Lang 'in the valley'; Template:Lang 'lake'
y Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'again'; Template:Lang 'leaf'
M Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'he's hiding'
Ŋ Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'hillside sloping down'
L Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'sunflower'
W Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'he's the one who's doing it'
Y Template:IPAslink Template:Lang 'he's hunting'

In the area around Woodfords, California, the local Washo dialect substituted Template:IPA for Template:IPA, thus, Template:Lang 'bird' was pronounced thithu.<ref>Caitlin Keliiaa. 2012. "Washiw Wagayay Maŋal: Reweaving the Washoe Language," University of California, Los Angeles MA thesis.</ref>

Morphology

Washo has a complex tense system.

Washo uses partial or total reduplication of verbs or nouns to indicate repetitive aspect or plural number. Washo uses both prefixation and suffixation on nouns and verbs.

Verbs

Verbal inflection is rich with a large number of tenses. Tense is usually carried by a suffix that attaches to the verb. The tense suffix may signal recent past, intermediate past, the long-ago-but-remembered past, the distant past, the intermediate future, or the distant future. For example, the suffix Template:Lang indicates that the verb describes an event that took place in the recent past, usually earlier the previous day as seen in the Washo sentence, Template:Lang ('the white man fed us').Template:Citation needed

Vowel Suffixes
Suffix Letter Meaning Used Example
Template:Lang intermediate past earlier than the current day, but not the distant past Template:Lang ('I fell over')
Template:Lang long ago, remembered past within the lifetime of the speaker Template:Lang ('They used to call him that')
Template:Lang distant past before the lifetime of the speaker Template:Lang ('They planted it here long ago')
Template:Lang recent past action just finished Template:Lang ('I got there')
Template:Lang present actions currently in progress Template:Lang ('I see you')
Template:Lang near future soon Template:Lang ('I will choke him')
Template:Lang intermediate future within the day Template:Lang ('It's getting green.' It will be green)
Template:Lang distant future the following day or later Template:Lang ('I will see you.' 'See you later')

Nouns

Template:Expand section Possession in Washo is shown by prefixes added to the object. There are two sets of prefixes added: the first set if the object begins with a vowel and the second set if the object begins with a consonant.Template:Citation needed

Noun Prefixes
Vowel-initial Prefix Usage Example
Template:Lang first-person possessive Template:Lang ('my/our house')
Template:Lang second-person possessive Template:Lang ('your house')
Template:Lang third-person possessive Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their house')
Template:Lang unidentified possessive Template:Lang ('somebody's house')
Consonant-initial Prefix Usage Example
Template:Lang first-person possessive Template:Lang ('my/our mouth')
Template:Lang second-person possessive Template:Lang ('your mouth')
Template:Lang third-person possessive

(when first vowel of the object is a or o)

Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their mouth')
Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their ball')
Template:Lang third person possessive

(when first vowel of the object is e, i, ɨ, or u')

Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their belt')
Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their net')
Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their grandmother's sister')
Template:Lang ('his/her/its/their pet')
unidentified possessive Template:Lang ('somebody's mouth')

See also

References

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Sources

Further reading

Template:Incubator Template:Sister project

Template:Languages of California Template:Hokan languages Template:Language families Template:Languages of Nevada Template:North American languages

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