Yola dialect

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Yola, more commonly and historically the Forth and Bargy dialect, is an extinct dialect of the Middle English language once spoken in the baronies of Forth and Bargy in County Wexford, Ireland. As such, it was probably similar to the Fingallian dialect of the Fingal area. Both became functionally extinct in the 19th century when they were replaced by modern Hiberno-English. The word Template:Lang means Template:Gloss in the dialect.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In modern times, there have been efforts to revive the dialect.

Yola hut refurbished in Tagoat, County Wexford, Ireland

History

Origins

Template:Further Template:Location map The dialect was spoken in County Wexford, particularly in the baronies of Forth and Bargy. This was the first area English speakers came to in the Norman invasion of Ireland, supporting the theory that it evolved from the Middle English introduced in that period. As such it is thought to have been similar to Fingallian, which was spoken in the Fingal region north of Dublin. Middle English, the mother tongue of the "Old English" community, was widespread throughout southeastern Ireland until the 14th century; as the Old English were increasingly assimilated into Irish culture, their original language was gradually displaced through Gaelicisation. After this point, Yola and Fingallian were the only attested relicts of this original form of English.<ref name=Hickey2005>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Hickey2002>Template:Cite book</ref>

Modern English was widely introduced by British colonists during and after the 17th century, forming the basis for the modern Hiberno-English of Ireland. The new varieties were notably distinct from the surviving relict dialects.<ref name=Hickey2005/><ref name=Hickey2002/> As English continued to spread, both Yola and Fingallian died out in the 19th century, though Yola continued to be used as a liturgical language by the churches of Wexford well into the 20th century. To this day the Kilmore Choir sings what were once Yola tunes, now adapted to Standard English.

The speech of Forth and Bargy was the only kind in Ireland included in Alexander John Ellis's work On Early English Pronunciation Volume V, which was the earliest survey of dialects of English. The phonetics of the dialect were taken from a local reverend.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Use after the mid-19th century

Though the Forth and Bargy dialect ceased to be used as a means of daily communication after the mid-19th century, it continued to see significant usage as a liturgical language, and some personal usage within the linguist community of Ireland, such as Kathleen Browne's letter to Ireland dated to 10 April 1893. Browne was a fluent Yola speaker and wrote a number of articles including "The Ancient Dialect of the Baronies of Forth and Bargy" in 1927.<ref>Browne, Brendan (2016). Kathleen A. Browne. The Past: The Organ of the Uí Cinsealaigh Historical Society. No. 32 (2016), pp. 108-115</ref> In 1952 N.A. Hudlestone observed that inhabitants of the area still continued to use some of Yola vocabulary and phrases<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

County Wexford native Paddy Berry is noted for his condensed performances of the piece "A Yola Zong", which he has performed for various recordings, the latest of which was in 2017.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Various Yola rhymes, passed down from generation to generation, can be heard spoken by a Wexford woman in a documentary recorded in 1969 on the present usage and rememberers of Yola in the former baronies of Forth and Bargy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Yola Farmstead, a community-operated reenactment of a Forth and Bargy village as it would have been during the 18th century, delivered a speech and performance of a song in Yola at their opening ceremony, featured Yola phrases in their advertisements, and hosted events where participants could learn some of the dialect from linguists and other experts on it.Template:Citation needed The Yola Farmstead also hosted a memorial event dedicated to Jack Devereux of the Kilmore Choir, which once used Yola extensively in their Christmas services. Devereux was a preservationist of, and well-versed in, Yola; locals considered him to be an expert on the dialect, and a rendition of the Lord's Prayer translated into Yola was read at his memorial.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The Yola Farm has since closed down but since 2021 there have been efforts to reopen it.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Wikitongues also has a section dedicated to Yola on its website which hosts language documentation and revitalization resources.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Phonology

As in the Dutch language, in southwestern varieties of English and (to a lesser extent) in German, most voiceless fricatives in Yola became voiced. The Middle English vowels are well-preserved, having only partially and sporadically undergone the changes associated with the Great Vowel Shift.<ref>Hickey, R. (1988). A lost Middle English dialect. Historical Dialectology: Regional and Social, 37, 235.</ref>

One striking characteristic of Yola was that stress shifted to the second syllable of words in many instances: Template:Lang "morsel", Template:Lang "hatchet", Template:Lang "dinner", Template:Lang "reader", Template:Lang "wedding", etc.<ref>Template:Cite book Reprinted 1972 by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Template:ISBN.</ref>

Orthography

Template:Unreferenced section An exact spelling system for Yola has never been codified, beyond general trends listed in Jacob Poole's writings. Most of the spellings are meant as comparisons to standard English ones of his day and the pronunciations are largely reconstructed. The following are listed here:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Yola orthography

Yola spelling	Phoneme (IPA)	Example	Notes
a	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (unstressed)	Template:Lang "angered", Template:Lang "below"
aa	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "any"
ai, aai, ay, aay	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "barrel"
au, aau, aw, aaw	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "care"
b	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "brain"
c	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (before Template:Vr)	Template:Lang "comfort", Template:Lang "lace"	soft c used mainly in analogies to English words
ch	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "chough"	also used for Template:IPA
d	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "dead"
dh	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "thunder"
e	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (unstressed)	Template:Lang "ass, donkey", Template:Lang "else"	silent at the end of a word, but not in unstressed syllables
ea	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "eel"
ee	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "iron"
ei, eei, ey, eey	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "just now"
eou, eow	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "cow"
eu, ew	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "few"
f	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (word-initial)<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>	Template:Lang "fleece"
g	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (before Template:Vr)	Template:Lang "grace", Template:Lang "bridge"	soft g used mainly in analogies to English words
gh	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (word-initial)	Template:Lang "faith", Template:Lang "pranks"	never silent possibly also Template:IPA
h	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "horn"	silent in consonant clusters not listed here
i	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "in"
ie	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (word-final)	Template:Lang "eyes", Template:Lang "where"
j	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "judge"
k	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "cover"
kh	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "to teach"	also used for Template:IPA
l	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "lace"
m	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "meadow"
n	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "next"
o	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "of"	rarely used alone
oa, o...e	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "one"
oee	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "joy"
oo	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "our"
ou, oou	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "gun"
ow	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "hoe (gardening tool)"
p	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "pray"
ph	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "when"	used mainly as an analogy to English words spelt with Template:Vr or Template:Vr
q	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "quern"	used mainly as an analogy to English words spelt with Template:Vr
r	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "rouse"
s	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (word-initial)<ref name=":0" />	Template:Lang "scald"
sh	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "she"
t	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "tape"
th	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "trust"	also used for Template:IPA
u	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "understand"
ui, uy	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "boy"
v	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "fear"
w	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "waste"
x	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "fox"	used mainly as an analogy to English words spelt with Template:Vr
y	Template:IPA, Template:IPA (consonant)	Template:Lang "idler", Template:Lang "gate"
y...e, -ye	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "grain"
z	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "sister"
zh	Template:IPA	Template:Lang "sheep"

Note that the spellings can be somewhat inconsistent, due to many words attempting to draw comparison to English cognates and variation within the dialect. Not too much of the above, particularly regarding the vowels, is exactly certain.

Grammar

Personal pronouns

Yola pronouns were similar to Middle English pronouns.<ref>William Barnes, Jacob Poole: A Glossary, With some Pieces of Verse, of the Old Dialect of the English Colony in the Baronies of Forth and Bargy, County of Wexford, Ireland. Formerly collected By Jacob Poole: And now edited, with some Introductory Observations, Additions from various sources, and Notes, By William Barnes. London, 1867

• ich is mentioned on p. 133
• ich, wough, ouse, hea, shoo, thye, aam; oor, yer (= your, but singular or plural?), aar (= there/their); meezil, theezil, himzil are in the glossary
• mee (possessive), thee (personal and possessive), ouse, oor & oore & our (possessive), he, shoo, it (objective), hi, aar (possessive), theezil (reflexive), aamzil (reflexive) occur in A Yola Zong (p. 84-92), mee (possessive), wough, ye (pl. nom.), our (possessive), hea, his (possessive), aar (possessive) in The Wedden o Ballymore (p. 93-98), ich, her in The Bride's Portion (p. 102f.), ich, mee (personal and possessive), ye (pl. nom.), hea & he, his (possessive), thye, aar (possessive) in Casteale Cudde's Lamentations (p. 102-105), hea, him, his (possessive), shoo, aam, aar (possessive) in a song recited by Tobias Butler (p. 108f.), wee, oure (possessive), ye (pl. for sg. obj.), yer (possessive, pl. for sg.), ourzels (reflexive), yersel (reflexive, pl. for sg.) in To's Excellencie Constantine Harrie Phipps (p. 114-117)</ref>

Articles

The definite article was at first Template:Lang or Template:Lang, which was later replaced by Template:Lang.Template:Citation needed

Verbs

Yola verbs had some conservative characteristics. The second and third person plural endings were sometimes Template:Lang or Template:Lang as in Chaucerian English. The past participle retained the Middle English "y" prefix as Template:Lang.<ref name="Poole 1867, p.133">Poole 1867, p.133.</ref>

Nouns

Some nouns retained the Template:Lang plural of ME children, such as Template:Lang 'bees' and Template:Lang 'trees'.Template:Citation needed

Vocabulary

The glossary compiled by Jacob Poole provides most of what is known about the Forth and Bargy vocabulary. Poole was a farmer and member of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) from Growtown in the Parish of Taghmon on the border between the baronies of Bargy and Shelmalier.<ref>Jacob Poole of Growtown.</ref> He collected words and phrases from his tenants and farm labourers between 1800 and his death in 1827.

Although most of its vocabulary is Old English in origin, Yola contains many borrowings from Irish and French.

All the Yola etymons are Middle English unless stated otherwise. Yola words derived from a non-standard Middle English form list the variant first, followed by the variant in parentheses.

Interrogative words

Yola interrogative words

English	Yola	Yola etymon	West Riding Yorkshire	Scots	West Frisian	Low Saxon
how	Template:Lang	wou how	haa	Template:Lang Template:Lang (Doric Scots)	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
what	Template:Lang	whad (what)	what	Template:Lang Template:Lang (Doric Scots)	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
when	Template:Lang	whanne	when	Template:Lang Template:Lang (Doric Scots)	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
where	Template:Lang	whider	wheer	Template:Lang Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
which	Template:Lang	whilch	which	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
who	Template:Lang	hwā (Old English)	who/whoa	Template:Lang Template:Lang (Doric Scots)	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
why	Template:Lang	wherto (why)	why	Template:Lang Template:Lang (Doric Scots)	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

Prepositions

Yola prepositions

English	Yola	Yola etymon	Yorkshire West Riding	Scots	West Frisian	Low Saxon
about	Template:Lang	abouten	abaat	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
above	Template:Lang	abuven	aboon	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
against	Template:Lang	ayens	agean/agen	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
among	Template:Lang	amang	amang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
around	Template:Lang	around	araand	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
at	Template:Lang	ed (at)	at	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
before	Template:Lang	avore (afore)	afoor, befoor	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
below/beneath/under	Template:Lang	alow	below/beneeath/under	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
beside	Template:Lang	beside	beside/aside	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
between/betwixt	Template:Lang	betwix	between/atween/betwixt/atwixt	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
by	Template:Lang	by	by/bi	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
for	Template:Lang	vor (for)	for	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
from	Template:Lang	vram (fram)	fra/thra/throo	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
next, next to	Template:Lang	next	next	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
in	Template:Lang	in	in/i	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
out	Template:Lang	out	aat	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
over	Template:Lang	over	ovver/ower/o'er	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
through	Template:Lang	thrugh	through/thrugh	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
upon	Template:Lang	upon	upon/upo'	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
with	Template:Lang	with	wi	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

Determiners

Yola determiners

English	Yola	Yola etymon	West Riding Yorkshire	Scots	West Frisian	Low Saxon
all	Template:Lang	all	all	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
any	Template:Lang	any aught	ony	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
each, every	Template:Lang	everich	eeach, ivvery	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
few	Template:Lang	few	few, a two-or-thry	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
neither	Template:Lang	nóhwæþer (Old English)	nawther	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
none, nothing	Template:Lang	naught, nothing	noan, nowt	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
other	Template:Lang	another	other	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
some	Template:Lang	sum	some	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
that	Template:Lang		that	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang
this	Template:Lang		this	Template:Lang	Template:Lang	Template:Lang

Modern South Wexford English

Diarmaid Ó Muirithe travelled to South Wexford in 1978 to study the English spoken there.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> His informants ranged in age between 40 and 90. Among the long list of words still known or in use at that time are the following:

• Template:Lang: 'going on amain' = getting on well
• Template:Lang: an unfriendly person
• Template:Lang: a little
• Template:Lang: threadbare
• Template:Lang: confusion, in a fash
• Template:Lang: to peep
• Template:Lang: to sunbathe, to relax in front of the fire
• Template:Lang: very, extremely
• Template:Lang: seaweed

Amain is a Norman word which means 'of easy use'.Template:Citation needed

Examples

A Yola song

The following is a song in Yola with a rough translation into English. Template:Verse translation

Address to Lord Lieutenant in 1836

Congratulatory address in the dialect of Forth and Bargy, presented to the Earl of Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, on his visit to Wexford in 1836. Taken from the Wexford Independent newspaper of 15 February 1860. The paper's editor Edmund Hore wrote:

The most remarkable fact, in reality, in connexion with the address is this. In all probability it was the first time regal or vice-regal ears were required to listen to words of such a dialect; and it is even still more probable that a like event will never happen again; for if the use of this old tongue dies out as fast for the next five-and-twenty years as it has for the same bygone period, it will be utterly extinct and forgotten before the present century shall have closed.

In order for a person not acquainted with the pronunciation of the dialect to form anything like an idea of it, it is first necessary to speak slowly, and remember that the letter a has invariably the same sound, like a in 'father.' Double ee sounds as e in 'me,' and most words of two syllables the long accent is placed on the last. To follow the English pronunciation completely deprives the dialect of its peculiarities.

English Translation

To his Excellency, Constantine Henry Phipps, Earl of Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant-General, and General Governor of Ireland. The humble Address of the Inhabitants of the Barony of Forth, Wexford.

MAY IT PLEASE YOUR EXCELLENCY – We, the subjects of his Most Gracious Majesty, William IV., and, as we truly believe, both faithful and loyal inhabitants of the Barony of Forth, beg leave at this favourable opportunity to approach your Excellency, and in the simple dress of our old dialect to pour forth from the strength (or fulness) of our hearts, our sense (or admiration) of the qualities which characterise your name, and for which we have no words but of 'Governor,' 'Statesman,' &c. In each and every condition it is with joy of heart that our eyes rest upon the representative of that Sovereign, William IV., under whose paternal rule our days are spent; for before your foot pressed the soil, your name was known to us as the friend of liberty, and he who broke the fetters of the slave. Unto ourselves – for we look on Ireland to be our common country – you have with impartial hand ministered the laws made for every subject, without regard to this party or that. We behold in you one whose days are devoted to the welfare of the land you govern, to promote peace and liberty – the uncompromising guardian of the common right and public virtue. The peace – yes, we may say the profound peace – which overspreads the land since your arrival, proves that we alone stood in need of the enjoyment of common privileges, as is demonstrated by the results of your government. The condition, this day, of the country, in which is neither tumult nor disorder, but that constitutional agitation, the consequence of disappointed hopes, confirms your rule to be rare and enlightened. Your fame for such came before you even into this retired spot, to which neither the waters of the sea below nor the mountains above caused any impediment. In our valleys, where we were digging with the spade, or as we whistled to our horses in the plough, we heard the distant sonnd of the wings of the dove of peace, in the word Mulgrave. With Irishmen our common hopes are inseparably bound up – as Irishmen, and as inhabitants, faithful and loyal, of the Barony Forth, we will daily and every day, our wives and our children, implore long and happy days, free from melancholy and full of blessings, for yourself and our good Sovereign, until the sun of our lives be gone down the dark valley (of death). {{#if:|

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"The maiden of Rosslare"

This following is a Yola poem from an original document containing accents to aid pronunciation;Template:Citation needed

"A song of Barony Forth"

This following is a Yola poem taken from Kathleen Brownes glossary of Forth and Bargy

"Three old maidens"

This following is a Yola poem taken from Kathleen Brownes glossary of Forth and Bargy

References

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
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• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite encyclopedia
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Poole's Glossary (1867) – Ed. Rev. William Barnes (Editorial 'Observations')
• Poole's Glossary (1979) – Ed. Dr. D. O'Muirithe & T.P. Dolan (Corrected Etymologies)

External links

• Yola Wikisource on Multilingual Wikisource
• A Glossary, With some Pieces of Verse, of the old Dialect of the English Colony in the Baronies of Forth and Bargy, County of Wexford, Ireland. Formerly collected By Jacob Poole, of Growtown, Taghmon, County of Wexford: And now edited, with some Introductory Observations, Additions from various sources, and Notes, By William Barnes, B. D. Author of a Grammar of the Dorsetshire Dialect. London, 1867: Internet Archive, Google Books
• from RTÉ:
  • Songs sung in the Yola language on RTE, i.e. archives (under Kilmore Christmas carols)
  • Yola – Lost for Words – an RTE documentary by Shane Dunphy
  • A People Apart In Wexford 1969 – an RTE television documentary
• Jacob Poole of Growtown – And the Yola Dialect
• Yola on An Tuath Noa from TG4