Zeami Motokiyo

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Template:Short description Template:Family name hatnote Template:Nihongo, also called Template:Nihongo, was a Japanese aesthetician, actor, and playwright.

His father, Kan'ami Kiyotsugu, introduced him to Noh theater performance at a young age, and found that he was a skilled actor. Kan'ami was also skilled in acting and formed a family theater ensemble. As it grew in popularity, Zeami had the opportunity to perform in front of the Shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu. The Shōgun was impressed by the young actor and began a close relationship with him. Although some think that due to the prevalence of exploration of male love in Noh plays that the two may have had an intimate relationship, the veracity of this has never truly been proven.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Zeami was introduced to Yoshimitsu's court and was provided with an education in classical literature and philosophy while continuing to act. In 1374, Zeami received patronage and made acting his career. After the death of his father in 1385, he led the family troupe, a role in which he found greater success.

Zeami mixed a variety of Classical and Modern themes in his writing and made use of Japanese and Chinese traditions. He incorporated numerous themes from Zen Buddhism into his works and later commentators have debated the extent of his personal interest in Zen. The exact number of plays that he wrote is unknown, but is likely to be between 30 and 50. He wrote many treatises about Noh, discussing the philosophy of performance. These treatises are the oldest known works on the philosophy of drama in Japanese literature, but did not see popular circulation until the 20th century.

After the death of Yoshimitsu, his successor Ashikaga Yoshimochi was less favorable to Zeami's drama. Zeami successfully sought out patronage from wealthy merchants and continued his career under their support. He became well-known and well-respected in Japanese society. Ashikaga Yoshinori became hostile toward Zeami after becoming Shōgun in 1429. Yoshinori held Zeami's nephew Onnami in high regard, and disagreed with Zeami's refusal to declare Onnami his successor as leader of his troupe. Possibly due to this disagreement, though a variety of competing theories have been advanced, Yoshinori sent Zeami into exile to Sado Island. After Yoshinori's death in 1441, Zeami returned to mainland Japan, where he died in 1443.

Early life

Zeami was born in 1363<ref name=h96p14/> near Nara<ref name=h96p15/> and was known as Kiyomoto as a child.<ref name=h96p14>Hare 1996, p. 14</ref> A later genealogy mentions his mother as the daughter of a priest and a military official, but it is not deemed reliable.<ref name=h96p15>Hare 1996, p. 15</ref> His father Kanami led a theater troupe<ref name=h96p14/> which primarily performed in the Kyoto region,<ref name=h96p12>Hare 1996, p. 12</ref> before becoming popular in the late 1360s and early 1370s. As they became better-known, Kanami's troupe began to perform in Daijogi.<ref name=h96p16/> Zeami acted in the troupe and was considered attractive and highly skilled.<ref name=h96p18>Hare 1996, p. 18</ref>

Ebina no Naami, an adviser of the Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, booked the troupe to perform for the Shōgun, who was then 17 years old.<ref name=h96p12/> The shōgun was very powerful politically and was a patron of the arts.<ref name=rxviii/> He was impressed by the troupe, and patronized Kanami. The troupe began to focus on the entertainment value of performance rather than its religious significance. It had been a form of entertainment associated with the more rural working class, but with Yoshimitsu's support it became associated with the upper class.<ref name=h96p13>Hare 1996, p. 13</ref> The Shōgun was highly attracted to Zeami, which proved controversial among aristocrats due to Zeami's lower-class background.<ref name=h96p16>Hare 1996, p. 16</ref> Yoshimitsu regularly invited Kanami and Zeami to the court, and Zeami accompanied him to events.<ref name=w43>Wilson 2006, p. 43</ref> Due to his connection with the Shōgun, Zeami was provided with a classical education by court statesman and poet Nijo Yoshimoto.<ref name=h96p17>Hare 1996, p. 17</ref> Nijo was renowned for his skill as a Renga and taught Zeami about literature, poetry, and philosophy. This type of education was very unusual for an actor: due to their lower-class backgrounds, actors generally received little education.<ref name=rxviii/>

Career

File:Sousetsubon fushikaden 7 part.PNG
Zeami's "Kadensho, Fushikaden, Flowering Spirit", "The Flowering Spirit No. 7", a manuscript of the Kanze sect.

Zeami received patronage in 1374, which was then an uncommon honor for an actor.<ref name=h96p17/> Patronage allowed him to become a vocational artist<ref name=h96p11>Hare 1996, p. 11</ref> and he began to lead the troupe after his father's death in 1385. The troupe became successful during his tenure as a leader.<ref name=h96p21>Hare 1996, p. 21</ref> While leading the troupe, he wrote the first Japanese treatises on pragmatic aesthetics.<ref name=h96p12/>

Zeami adhered to a formalist writing process: he began with a topic, determined the structure, and finished by writing the lyrics. The number of plays that he wrote is uncertain, but is estimated to be around 50 or 60.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> His intellectual interests were eclectic<ref name=h96p11/> and he was a proficient writer of Renga.<ref name=h96p19>Hare 1996, p. 19</ref> The Tale of the Heike was the source of several of his best known plays.<ref name=w153>Wilson 2006, p. 153</ref> He integrated Japanese and Chinese ancient poetry into his drama.<ref name=w18>Wilson 2006, p. 18</ref> Contemporary dramatists Doami and Zoami had a significant influence on him,<ref name=h96p30/> earning recognition in his treatises. He spoke particularly well of Zoami,<ref name=rxviii/> but his shift toward Yugen and away from Monomane may have been because of Doami's influence.<ref name=h96p31>Hare 1996, p. 31</ref> He mixed popular dance, drama, and music with classical poetics and thus broadened and popularized the classical tradition.<ref name=h96p12/> In his earlier work, he used Zen illustrations, creating new Zen words and using established Zen words out of context. Many of the themes he used are present in other schools of Buddhism.<ref name=h96p31/> Japan was dominated by a focus on Zen culture then, and he was registered at a Zen temple<ref name=h96p32/> and was a friend of a well-known Zen priest.<ref name=h96p31/> In 1422, he became a lay monk.<ref name=w45>Wilson 2006, p. 45</ref>

One of the most important performances of Zeami's career occurred in 1394. At that time, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu visited the Kasuga shrine in Nara and Zeami performed during the visit.<ref name=h96p22>Hare 1996, p. 22</ref> It was a significant political event, so Zeami was likely a well known artist by this time. He gave two significant performances for the Shōgun in 1399,<ref name=h96p23>Hare 1996, p. 23</ref> one of which could have been attended by Emperor Go-Komatsu.<ref name=h96p25>Hare 1996, p. 25</ref>

Zeami found Yoshimitsu to be a difficult patron,<ref name=h96p25/> and he had to compete with a rival named Inuo, a Sarugaku actor, for the favor of the Shōgun.<ref name=h96p26/> Yoshimitsu died in 1408,<ref name=h96p26>Hare 1996, p. 26</ref> but the new Shōgun, Yoshimochi, was indifferent to Zeami<ref name=rxix>Rimer 1984, p. xix</ref> and preferred the dengaku work of Zoami.<ref name=rxviii/> However, Zeami's career remained strong<ref name=h96p28/> thanks to his connections with the urban commercial class. Due to his status as a well respected public figure, he had access to a number of patrons.<ref name=h96p28>Hare 1996, p. 28</ref> He eventually reached celebrity status<ref name=rxviii>Rimer 1984, p. xviii</ref> and wrote a significant amount between 1418 and 1428.<ref name=h96p28/>

Plays

Authorship of Noh plays is a complex issue and often a matter of debate. Some plays are decisively known to have been written by Zeami, but many more have been attributed to him, and he was known to be involved in revising and transmitting the work of others. His plays have been passed down through generations of Kanze leaders, and along the way, they have been revised and reworked.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The following are universally attributed to Zeami:<ref name=Tyler92>Tyler 1992, plays introduction</ref>

Treatises

Zeami produced 21 critical writings over a period of roughly four decades.<ref name=q1/> His treatises discuss the principles of Noh. He sought to inform his colleagues of the most important aspects of theater, discussing the education of the actor,<ref name=k>Kenklies 2018</ref> character acting, music, and physical movement.<ref name=rxvii>Rimer 1984, p. xvii</ref> His writings also discussed broader themes, such as how life should be lived.<ref name=w15>Wilson 2006, p. 15</ref> The treatises were intended for a small circle of his colleagues, since the troupes were hereditary, and such information was traditionally passed down between generations. He desired to facilitate this process<ref name=rxix/> and ensure continued patronage for the troupe.<ref name=rxx/>

Fūshikaden

Zeami wrote several treatises on drama, the first of which was the Template:Nihongo, known colloquially as Template:Nihongo. It is the first known treatise on drama in Japan;<ref name=h96p23/> though similar treatises were written by Japanese Buddhist sects and poets, this is the Noh treatise. J. Thomas Rimer suggests that Zeami's education in Renga poetry provided him with the idea.<ref name=rxx>Rimer 1984, p. xx</ref> It notably includes a thorough analysis of jo-ha-kyū, which Zeami viewed as a universal concept. His first treatise includes much of his father's views of Noh.<ref name=h96p23/>

Kakyo

The treatise Kakyo was written later and describes Zeami's personal views. Though Fushikaden discusses flowers at length, Kakyo deals with spiritual beauty and contains discourses on the voice of the actor and the actors' minds.<ref name=h96p30>Hare 1996, p. 30</ref> A possible interest in Zen has been credited with this shift by some scholars.<ref name=h96p31/> The change in his age between his first and last works also appears to have significantly affected his perspective.<ref name=h96p32/> He spent a significant amount of time writing Kakyo and gave the completed work to his son Motomasa.<ref name="h96p29">Hare 1996, p. 29</ref> Zeami's son Motoyoshi had previously transcribed Zeami's treatise Reflections on Art.<ref name=rxix/>

Decline

After Ashikaga Yoshinori became the Shōgun, he demonstrated a deeper disdain for Zeami than his predecessors had,<ref name=h96p32/> though the origins of his feelings are unknown. Speculation has centered on Zeami's association with Masashige<ref name=h96p32>Hare 1996, p. 32</ref> and the theory that Zeami was a restorationist.<ref name=h96p12/> In 1967, the Kanze-Fukudu genealogy was found and gave credence to the idea that politics contributed to Yoshinori's treatment of Zeami. The genealogy showed that one of Zeami's maternal uncles was supported the southern court against the Ashikaga Shogunate.<ref name=h96p14/> Yoshinori is sometimes seen as eccentric, and it has been speculated that he punished Zeami because he did not enjoy his performances - Yoshinori preferred colorful plays<ref name=h96p33>Hare 1996, p. 33</ref> that involved actors portraying demons; these types of plays were seldom found in Zeami's repertoire.<ref name=h96p35>Hare 1996, p. 35</ref> He enjoyed Monomane, and more particularly Onnami,<ref name=h96p33/> as his performances included demons.<ref name=h96p35/> Zeami had been close with Onnami and they had performed together.<ref name=h96p35/> Zeami had also been unsure whether any of his sons would be able to lead the troupe after his death, so he paid special attention to Onnami's development.<ref name=w46>Wilson 2006, p. 46</ref> Motomasa, however, began to lead the troupe in 1429.<ref name=w46/> That year, though Motomasa and Onnami each performed for Yoshinori during a 10-day festival<ref name=h96p345>Hare 1996, p. 34-35</ref> Yoshinori forbade Zeami to appear at the Sentō Imperial Palace,<ref name=h96p32/> possibly due to his refusal to provide Onnami with his complete writings.<ref name=w46/> The next year, the musical directorship of the Kiyotaki shrine was transferred from Motomasa to Onnami.<ref name=h96p32/> That year Zeami's son Motoyoshi also retired from acting to serve as a Buddhist priest.<ref name=rxix/> Motomasa died the same year, and it has been speculated that he was murdered.<ref name=h96p32/> Though he had lost political favor, Zeami continued to write prolifically.<ref name=h96p36/>

Onnami inherited the leadership of Zeami's Kanze school.<ref name=h96p35/> The appointment was made by the Shogunate, although the troupes were traditionally hereditary.<ref name=rxix/> Zeami initially opposed Onnami's leadership of the troupe, but he eventually acquiesced.<ref name=h96p35/> Zeami believed that his line had died with Motomasa, but Onnami felt that he continued the line.<ref name=h96p36/> Zeami gave his completed works to Konparu Zenchiku rather than to Onnami.<ref name=h96p36>Hare 1996, p. 36</ref>

Sado Island

In 1434, Zeami was exiled to Sado Island.<ref name=h96p32/> He completed his last recorded work two years later, providing a detailed first-person account of his exile.<ref name=h96p37>Hare 1996, p. 37</ref> In the account he conveys a stoic attitude toward his misfortunes.<ref name=w47>Wilson 2006, p. 47</ref> Little is known about the end of his life, but it was traditionally believed that he was pardoned and return to the mainland before his death.<ref name=rxix/> Zeami died in 1443 and was buried in Yamato. His wife died a short time later.<ref name=h96p38>Hare 1996, p. 38</ref>

Legacy

Zeami is known as the foremost writer of Noh and the artist who brought it to its classical epitome.<ref name=h96p12/> Scholars attribute roughly 50 plays to him, many of which have been translated into European languages. The contemporary versions of his plays are sometimes simplified. Some of his plays no longer exist, and roughly 16 exist only in the form of rare manuscripts.<ref name= rxxvii>Rimer 1984, p. xxvii.</ref>

There are few extant biographical documents of Zeami and the lack of solid information about his life has led to a significant amount of speculation.<ref name= h96p12/> Some common themes in the speculation are that Zeami could have been a spy, a Ji sect priest, or a Zen master.<ref name=h96p12/>

Zeami's treatises were not widely available after his death; only the upper-class warriors were able to gain access to them. In 1908, several of the treatises were discovered at a used books store in Japan. They gained wider circulation after this discovery, but a complete set was not published until 1940.<ref name=w49>Wilson 2006, p. 49.</ref> However, Zeami's plays have been continually performed in Japan since they were first written.<ref name=q1>Quinn 2005, p. 1.</ref>

A crater on the planet Mercury was named after Zeami in 1976.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

References

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