View source for Caribbean English

{{Short description|English dialects native to the Caribbean}}<!-- there doesn't seem to be a standard forumula for SDESC for language dialects? (as per brief search on 15 nov 2022) -->
{{EngvarB|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Caribbean English
| familycolor      = indo-european
| altname          = 
| nativename       = 
| pronunciation    = 
| region           = [[Commonwealth Caribbean]]
| speakers         = 1,824,960<!-- this seems like an undercount eg Ethnologue ed. 25 lists Jamaica as 86,000 total English-speakers -->
| date             = 2001{{nbhyph}}21
| ref              = {{sfn|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2022|loc=digest on English}}{{notetag|Including only seventeen countries and territories listed in {{harvnb|Allsopp|2003|pp=xii-xvi}}, ie Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, British and US Virgin Islands.}}
| speakers2        = [[L2 speakers|L2]]: 540,200 (2003{{nbhyph}}20){{sfn|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2022|loc=digest on English}}{{notetag|Including only seventeen countries and territories listed in {{harvnb|Allsopp|2003|pp=xii-xvi}}, ie Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, British and US Virgin Islands. L2 data missing for some countries or territories in {{harvnb|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2022|loc=digest on English}}.}}
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[North Sea Germanic]]
| fam5             = [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam6             = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| fam7             = [[English language|English]]
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2        = [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]
| ancestor3        = [[Old English]]
| ancestor4        = [[Middle English]]
| ancestor5        = [[Early Modern English|17th century Modern English]]
| dia1             = [[Antiguan and Barbudan English]]
| dia2             = [[Bahamian English]]
| dia3             = [[Barbadian English]]
| dia4             = [[Bay Islands English]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia5             = [[Bermudian English]]
| dia6             = [[Belizean English]]
| dia7             = [[Bocas del Toro Creole]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia8             = [[Cayman Islands English]]
| dia9             = [[Grenadian Creole English]]
| dia10            = [[Guyanese Creole]]<!-- not strictly English -->
| dia11            = [[Jamaican English]]
| dia12            = [[Limonese Creole]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia13            = [[Miskito Coast Creole]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia14            = [[Montserrat Creole]]<!-- not strictly English -->
| dia15            = [[English language in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican English]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia16            = [[Rama Cay Creole]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia17            = [[San Andrés–Providencia Creole]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia18            = [[San Nicolaas English]]<!-- not listed by DCEU -->
| dia19            = [[Trinidadian and Tobagonian English]]
| dia20            = [[Turks and Caicos Creole]]<!-- not strictly English -->
| dia21            = [[Vincentian Creole]]<!-- not strictly English -->
<!--| dia22            = -->[[Virgin Islands Creole]]<!-- not strictly English -->
| stand1           = Caribbean Standard English{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=liv-lvi}}
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[English alphabet]])
| nation           = [[Commonwealth Caribbean]]{{sfn|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2022|loc=digest on English}}
| minority         = [[Samana English]]  [[Dominican Republic]]
| isoexception     = dialect
| lc1              = 
| ld1              = 
| lc2              = 
| ld2              = 
| linglist         = 
| lingua           = 
| guthrie          = 
| ietf             = en-029
| image            = 
| imagecaption     = 
| map              = 
| mapcaption       = 
| coordinates      = 
| notice           = IPA
| dia22            = [[Gustavia English]]
}}
{{English language}}
'''Caribbean English''' ('''CE''',{{notetag|The ''CE'' abbreviation is used in {{harvnb|Allsopp|2003|p=lxx}}. Others may use it for [[Canadian English]].}} '''CarE''') is a set of [[List of dialects of English|dialects]] of the [[English language]] which are spoken in the [[Caribbean]] and most countries on the Caribbean coasts of [[Central America]] and [[South America]]. Caribbean English is influenced by, but is distinct to the [[English-based creole languages]] spoken in the region. Though dialects of Caribbean English vary structurally and phonetically across the region, all are primarily derived from [[British English]], [[Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#South_America_and_the_Caribbean|Indigenous languages]] and [[Languages of Africa|West African languages]]. In some countries with a plurality [[Indo-Caribbean|Indian population]], such as [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Guyana]], Caribbean English has further been influenced by [[Caribbean Hindustani|Hindustani]] and other [[Languages of South Asia|South Asian languages]].{{sfn|Mahabir|1999|p=???}}{{sfn|Holbrook|Holbrook|2001|p=???}}{{sfn|SC|nd|loc=???}}<!-- need to check these sources for claim re. Liberia as of 13.07 on 18 nov 2022 -->

== Overview ==
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2009}}
* The daily-used English in the Caribbean has a different set of pronouns, typically ''me, meh'' or ''mi'', ''you, yuh, he, she, it, we, wi'' or ''alawe, wunna'' or ''unu'', and ''dem'' or ''day''. Central Americans use ''I, mi, my, he, she, ih, it, we, wi'' or ''alawe'', ''allayu'' or ''unu'', and ''dem, den, deh''.
* Consonant changes like [[h-dropping|''h''-dropping]] or [[th-stopping|''th''-stopping]] are common. 
* Some might be "sing-songish"{{Clarify|date=January 2020}} in Trinidad and the Bahamas.
* [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|Rhotic]]: Bajan (Barbadian), Guyanese
* Influenced by [[Irish English]]: Jamaican, Bajan
* Influenced by any of the above, as well as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and indigenous languages: [[Central American]] English dialects like the [[Belizean Kriol language|Belizean Creole (Kriol)]], or the [[Mískito Coastal Creole]] and [[Rama Cay Creole]] spoken in Nicaragua

However, the English that is used in the media, education, and business and in formal or semi-formal discourse approaches the internationally understood variety of [[Standard English]] (British English in all former and present British territories and [[American English]] in [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[US Virgin Islands]]) but with an Afro-Caribbean cadence (Spanish cadence in [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina]]).

== Dialects ==
<!-- ie what dialects are covered under CarE? -->
The first-order dialects deemed constituent of Caribbean English vary within scholarly literature.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} For instance, the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' includes only 'the forms of English as spoken in Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana, Belize, the Bahamas and Barbados, as well as in some of the smaller Eastern Caribbean nations' in deriving its phonetic transcriptions.{{sfn|OED|2022|loc=key for CarE}} The ''[[Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage]]'' further includes the dialects of Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, the Virgin Islands, the Netherlands Antilles, Suriname, and the Turks and Caicos.{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xii-xvi}}

Caribbean English-based creole languages are commonly (in popular literature) or sometimes (in scholarly literature) considered dialects of Caribbean English.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}{{notetag|For instance, the first sentence in {{harvnb|Robinson|2007}} describes the ensuing content as including information 'about the history of English in the Caribbean,' but then goes on to only cover the history of English-based creole languages. Further, {{harvnb|Allsopp|2003|pp=xxvi-xxvii}} include creole entries in their dictionary, noting the frequent inclusion of creole words, phrases, and dialogue in English literature of the region, and further stating that 'creole dialects are a pan-Caribbean reality which no professional lexicography, whatever be its mandate, can simply ignore.' Additionally, {{harvnb|OED|2022|loc=model for CarE}} included aspects of various creoles in its production of a pronunciation key and model for Caribbean English.}}

== History ==
The development of Caribbean English is dated to the West Indian exploits of [[Elizabethan Sea Dogs]], which are credited with introducing to [[Elizabethan era|England]] names for new-found flora and fauna via, for instance, [[Richard Hakluyt|Hakluyt's]] ''Principall Navigations'' of 1589 and [[Walter Raleigh|Raleigh's]] ''Discoverie of the Empyre of Guiana'' of 1596.{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xl}} As English settlements followed shortly thereafter, Caribbean English has been deemed 'the oldest exportation of that language from its British homeland.'{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xl-xli}} 

Two sorts of anglophone immigrants to the seventeenth-century West Indies have been described in literature – the first, consisting of [[Indentured servitude|indentured servants]] and settlers mainly from [[South West England|southwestern England]], predominantly speaking non-standard vernaculars of English; the second, consisting of colonial administrators, missionaries, and educators, predominantly speaking more standard forms of the language.{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|pp=86-88}} The former, along with African slaves, are credited with the development and spread of [non-standard-] English-derived creole languages, while the latter are noted as frequent sources of derision of such speech.{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|pp=86-88}}

== Features ==
<!-- ie all distinctive aural and non-aural features of CarE? -->
Caribbean English accents and pronunciation are variable within and across sub-dialects.<!-- citation might be needed but following examples should suffice? --> For instance, Barbadian English is fully [[Rhoticity in English|rhotic]], while Jamaican English is not.{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=570}} Further, within Jamaican English, [[H-dropping|''h''-dropping]] is common in some social classes, but uncommon in others.{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=568-569}} Additionally, in territories with English-derived creole languages, the phonetic distinction between English and creole is thought to be continuous rather than discrete, with the creole [[Post-creole continuum|acrolect]] differing 'only trivially' from English.{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=564}}{{notetag|The {{harvnb|OED|2022|loc=model for CarE}} recently noted – {{blockquote|Of all [sixteen] World English varieties currently addressed by the ''OED'', delineating a ‘Caribbean English’ provides the greatest challenge [as t]here is vast phonetic and phonological diversity across this region[.]}}}}

Nevertheless, there is thought to be 'a general sense in which a "West Indian accent" is distinguishable as such anywhere in the world.'{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xliv}} Likely reasons for this have been described as 'the general quality of CE [Caribbean English] vowels, the sharp reduction in the number of [[Glides (linguistics)|diphthongal glides]] and, the most distinguishing feature of all, the phrasal [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] [and] separation of syllabic pitch and [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] in CE.'{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xliv}} Broadly, the [[Register (sociolinguistics)|middle-register]] of Caribbean English is thought to contain eight fewer phonemes than [[Received Pronunciation]].{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xlv-xlvi}}{{notetag|That is, ten, four, and twenty-one vowels, glides, and consonants, respectively, compared to eleven, eight, and twenty-four in Received Pronunciation as represented in {{harvnb|Gimson|1980}} {{harv|Allsopp|2003|p=xlvi}}.}}

The [[lexicon]] of Caribbean English varies, to an extent, across and within sub-dialects.{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=li-lii}} '[T]he bulk of the vocabulary,' however, has been described as 'identical' across the region.{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|p=92}} Additionally, in territories with English-derived creole languages, the lexical distinction between English and creole is thought to be continuous rather than discrete, such that 'structurally it is impossible to draw exact lines between them.'{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|p=92}}
=== Tables ===
{| class="sortable"
|+ Sample of phonetic features distinctive of lower-to-upper-register Caribbean English as used in at least some territories.
|-
! Feature !! Gloss !! Notes
|-
| [[Th-stopping|''th''-stopping]] || /θ/ pronounced as /t/ (e.g. ''/tiŋk/'' ('''th'''ink) or /tri/ ('''th'''ree)); /ð/ pronounced as /d/ (e.g. in /dɪs/ ('''th'''is) or /dæt/ ('''th'''at)) || varies by class; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=565-566}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xlv-xlvi}}{{sfn|OED|2022|loc=key to CarE}}<!--{{notetag|Deemed a socially-sensitive feature, with the use of fricatives for /th/ deemed 'high-prestige' and used by 'the most educated speakers' {{harv|Wells|1982|p=565}}.}}-->
|-
| [[H-dropping|''h''-dropping]] || Initial /h/ deleted (e.g. /æpi/ (happy) or /aʊs/ (house)) || varies by class; may vary within CarE; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=568-569}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlvii}}<!--{{notetag|Observed in Jamaica and parts of the Bahamas, and possibly elsewhere, though the feature's use 'in other parts of the West Indies is not altogether clear' {{harv|Wells|1982|p=569}}. Deemed a socially-sensitive feature, being 'overtly stigmatised and regarded as incorrect,' with 'the educated and middle class' not dropping the /h/ phoneme {{harv|Wells|1982|p=569}}.}}-->
|-
| [[Consonant-cluster reduction|consonant cluster reduction]] || Consonant clusters are simplified, namely in the coda (e.g. /bɛst/ > /bɛs/ (best), /ɹɪ.spɛkt/ > /ɹɪ.spɛk/ (respect), or /lænd/ > /læn/ (land)) || varies by class; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=566-567}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xlvi-xlvii}}<!--{{notetag|Deemed a socially-sensitive feature, 'with the most educated or careful accents having a range of consonant clusters just as wide as that of [Received Pronunciation]' {{harv|Wells|1982|p=566}}.}}-->
|-
| [[Rhoticity in English|rhoticity]] || <Vr> is pronounced using /ɹ/ (e.g.  /ɑɹd/ (hard) or /kɔɹn/ (corn)) || varies within CarE; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=570-572}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlvi}}{{sfn|OED|2022|loc=key for CarE}}<!--{{notetag|Some varieties of Caribbean English are fully rhotic, while others are not, and still others 'have a more complex system in which the /r/ sound is pronounced in some phonetic environments but not in others' ({{harvnb|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}, {{harvnb|Wells|1982|p=570}}).}}-->
|-
| [[Stress and vowel reduction in English|unreduced vowel in weak syllables]] || vowels in unstressed syllables not reduced e.g. /a/ in '''''a'''bout'' or ''bac'''on''''', or e.g. /of/ in ''lot '''of''' work'' or /a/ in ''in '''a''' few days'' || may vary by class; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=570-571}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlv}}<!--{{notetag|Notable as 'a very subtle feature that contributes to the characteristic rhythm of "lilt" of Caribbean English' {{harv|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}.}}-->
|-
| FACE vowel || idiosyncratic phoneme e.g. in ''g'''a'''m'''e''''', ''tr'''ay''''', ''pl'''ai'''n'', ''gr'''ea'''t'' || varies by class; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=571}}
|-
| GOAT vowel || idiosyncratic phoneme e.g. in  ''h'''o'''m'''e''''', ''sh'''ow''''', ''b'''oa'''t'', ''t'''oe'''''  || varies by class; cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English phonology'}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=571}}
|-
| L consonant || idiosyncratic /l/ phoneme e.g. in ''mi'''l'''k'' || cf{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=569-570}}<!--{{notetag|Notable as widespread across the Caribbean {{harv|Wells|1982|pp=569-570}}. Described as a clear or lightly palatalised /l/, as opposed to the more common dark or velarised /l/ {{harv|Wells|1982|p=570}}.}}-->
|-
| W consonant || idiosyncratic /w/ phoneme e.g. in '''''w'''eek'' or '''''w'''et'' || cf{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=569-570}}<!--{{notetag|Notable as widespread within Caribbean English {{harv|Wells|1982|pp=569-570}}.}}-->
|-
| [[Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩|glide cluster reduction]] || /h/ in /wh/ not pronounced e.g. in '''''wh'''ine'' || may vary by class; cf{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=570}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlvi}}
|-
| [[Stress (linguistics)|stress shift]] || idiosyncratic prosody of words e.g. in ''rea-LISE'', ''ce-le-BRATE'', ''a-gri-CUL-ture'' || cf{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=572-573}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xliv-xlv}}
|-
| [[Fronting (sound change)|fronting]] || idiosyncratic prosody of phrases e.g. in ''is '''BORROW''' she '''borrow''' it'' || cf{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlix}}
|}
{| class="sortable"
|+ Sample of grammatical features distinctive of lower-to-upper-register Caribbean English as used in at least some territories.
|-
! Feature !! Gloss !! Notes
|-
| zero [[indefinite article]] || indefinite articles [occasionally] omitted e.g. in ''in '''_''' couple of days'' || cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English grammar'}}
|-
| zero past tense marker || verbs left unmarked for tense e.g. in ''I '''work_''' a few months'' || cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English grammar'}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xlvii-xlix}}
|-
| zero plural marker || nouns left unmarked for plurality e.g. in ''my '''relative_''' were'' || cf{{sfn|Robinson|2007|loc=sec. 'Caribbean English grammar'}}
|-
| [[functional shift]] || part-of-speech and sense of words shifted e.g. noun to verb shift of ''rice'' in ''to rice somebody'' || cf{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xlvii-xlviii}}
|-
| zero [[Subject–verb inversion in English|subject–verb inversion]] || subject-verb order not inverted in questions e.g. in ''You going back?'' || cf{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlix}}
|-
| [[reduplication]] || emphatic repetition of words or phrases e.g. in ''fool-fool'', ''big big big'' || cf{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xlix}}
|}<!-- idiomatic phrases in DCEU pp xlix-l, though don't fit in this table? -->
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="sortable"
|+ [[Lexical set|Lexical sets]] of upper-register Caribbean English as used in select territories.{{sfn|OED|2022|loc=models for CarE, BrE, AmE}}{{notetag|Note ''BrE'', ''AmE'' stand for ''British English'', ''American English''. Phonemes with CarE–BrE or CarE–AmE differences are recorded in {{color|red|red}}. In columns BrE, AmE, en dashes (–) stand for ''phoneme is the same as that in CarE''. In the Notes column, en dashes represent missing or null values. CarE dialects sampled for these data were those of the Bahamas, Guyana, Jamaica {{harv|OED|2022|loc=model for CarE}}. Additionally, English creoles of Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago were sampled {{harv|OED|2022|loc=model for CarE}}. CarE dialects or English creoles of Barbados, Belize, and the Lesser Antilles may have been, to a lesser extent, sampled {{harv|OED|2022|loc=model for CarE}}.}}
|-
! Set !! CarE !! BrE !! AmE !! Notes
|-
| {{smallcaps|kit}} || {{angbr IPA|ɪ}} || – || – || –
|-
| {{smallcaps|dress}} || {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} || – || – || –
|-
| {{smallcaps|trap}} || {{angbr IPA|a}} || – || – || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|bath}}}} || {{angbr IPA|aː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɑː}} + {{angbr IPA|a}} || {{angbr IPA|æ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|lot}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɑ}} || {{angbr IPA|ɒ}} || – || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|cloth}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɒ}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} + {{angbr IPA|ɑ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|strut}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ʌ}} || – || {{angbr IPA|ə}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|foot}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ʊ}} || – || – || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|fleece}}}} || {{angbr IPA|iː}} || – || {{angbr IPA|i}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|goose}}}} || {{angbr IPA|uː}} || – || {{angbr IPA|u}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|palm}}}} || {{angbr IPA|aː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɑː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɑ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|start}}}} || {{angbr IPA|aː}} / {{angbr IPA|aːr}} || {{angbr IPA|ɑː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɑr}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|nurse}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɜː}} / {{angbr IPA|ɜːr}} || {{angbr IPA|əː}} || {{angbr IPA|ər}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|north}}}} || {{angbr IPA|oː}} / {{angbr IPA|oːr}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔr}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|force}}}} || {{angbr IPA|oː}} / {{angbr IPA|oːr}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔr}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|thought}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔː}} + {{angbr IPA|aː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} + {{angbr IPA|ɑ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|near}}}} || {{angbr IPA|eː}} / {{angbr IPA|eː r}} || {{angbr IPA|ɪə}} || {{angbr IPA|ɪr}} / {{angbr IPA|ɪər}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|square}}}} || {{angbr IPA|eː}} / {{angbr IPA|eː r}} || {{angbr IPA|ɛː}} || {{angbr IPA|ɛr}} / {{angbr IPA|ɛər}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|cure}}}} || {{angbr IPA|oː}} / {{angbr IPA|oːr}} || {{angbr IPA|ʊə}} + {{angbr IPA|ɔː}} || {{angbr IPA|ʊr}} / {{angbr IPA|ʊər}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|face}}}} || {{angbr IPA|eː}} || {{angbr IPA|eɪ}} || {{angbr IPA|eɪ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|pride}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ai}} || {{angbr IPA|ʌɪ}} || {{angbr IPA|aɪ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|voice}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔi}} + {{angbr IPA|ai}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔɪ}} || {{angbr IPA|ɔɪ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|mouth}}}} || {{angbr IPA|aʊ}} + {{angbr IPA|ɔʊ}} || {{angbr IPA|aʊ}} || {{angbr IPA|aʊ}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|goat}}}} || {{angbr IPA|oː}} || {{angbr IPA|əʊ}} || {{angbr IPA|oʊ}} || –
|-
| {{smallcaps|happ'''y'''}} || {{angbr IPA|i}} || – || – || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|lett'''er'''}}}} || {{angbr IPA|a}} || {{angbr IPA|ə}} || {{angbr IPA|ər}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|rabb'''i'''t}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɪ}} || {{angbr IPA|ᵻ}} || – || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|add'''e'''d}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ɪ}} || {{angbr IPA|ᵻ}} || {{angbr IPA|ə}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|beautif'''u'''l}}}} || {{angbr IPA|ʊ}} || – || {{angbr IPA|ə}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|p'''i'''ano}}}} || {{angbr IPA|i}} || {{angbr IPA|ɪ}} || – || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|'''a'''go}}}} || {{angbr IPA|a}} || {{angbr IPA|ə}} || {{angbr IPA|ə}} || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{smallcaps|b'''e'''cause}}}} || {{angbr IPA|i}} || {{angbr IPA|ᵻ}} || {{angbr IPA|ə}} + {{angbr IPA|i}} || –
|}
</div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="sortable"
|+ Consonant phonemes of upper-register Caribbean English as used in select territories.{{sfn|OED|2022|loc=keys for CarE, BrE, AmE}}{{notetag|Note ''BrE'', ''AmE'' stand for ''British English'', ''American English''. Phonemes with CarE–BrE or CarE–AmE differences are recorded in {{color|red|red}}. In columns CarE, BrE, AmE, multiplication signs (×) stand for ''phoneme is present'' while en dashes (–) stand for ''phoneme is absent''. In the Notes column, en dashes represent missing or null values. CarE dialects sampled for these data were those of the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and some of the Lesser Antilles {{harv|OED|2022|loc=key for CarE}}.}}
|-
! Unit !! CarE !! BrE !! AmE !! Notes
|-
| {{angbr IPA|b}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|d}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|dʒ}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{angbr IPA|ð}}}} || – || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|f}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|g}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|h}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|j}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|k}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|l}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|m}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|n}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|p}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|r}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|s}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|ʃ}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|t}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|tʃ}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{angbr IPA|θ}}}} || – || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|v}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|w}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|z}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{angbr IPA|ʒ}} || × || × || × || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{angbr IPA|x}}}} || – || × || × || –
|-
| {{color|red|{{angbr IPA|ɬ}}}} || – || × || – || –
|}
</div>
<!-- == Sociolinguistics == -->

== Standardisation ==
The [[Standard language|standardisation]] of Caribbean English is thought to have begun upon the advent of government-funded public education in the West Indies in 1833.{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|p=88}} Notably, the earliest public teachers, credited with first developing Standard Caribbean English, had been 'imported direct from Britain, or recruited from among the "coloured" class on the islands who had benefited from their mixed parentage by receiving the rudiments of education.'{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|p=88}} Linguistically, however, the growth of public education in said standard register resulted in 'a practical bilingualism' that has been described as a typical example of [[diglossia]].{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|p=89}} By the late twentieth century, as most territories transitioned to sovereignty and adopted English as their official language, 'efforts were made to define norms for Caribbean English usage in public, formal domains, and more specifically examination settings.'{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|p=90}} These are thought to have culminated in the 1996 publication of the ''Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage'', commonly deemed the authority on Standard Caribbean English, with the former defining the latter as 'the total body of regional lexicon and usage bound to a common core of syntax and morphology shared with [non-Caribbean forms of [[standard English|standardised English]]], but aurally distinguished as a discrete type by certain phonological features.'{{sfn|Seoane|Suárez-Gómez|2016|pp=90-91}}{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=lvi}}{{notetag|Though {{harvnb|Allsopp|2003|p=lv}} first glosses Caribbean Standard English as the 'conglomerate of [the] several Standard Englishes [of] the nations and states of the former British West Indian colonies.'}}
<!-- == Relationship with other languages ie British, Commonwealth, American English, and creoles == -->

== Study ==
The earliest scholarly dictionary of Caribbean English is thought to have been the 1967 ''[[Dictionary of Jamaican English]]''.{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xx}} During Easter of that same year, the [[Caribbean Association of Headmasters and Headmistresses]] resolved – {{blockquote|Be it resolved that this Association request the appropriate department of the [[University of the West Indies]] to compile a list of lexical items in each territory and to circulate these to schools for the guidance of teachers.|''Resolution 6'' of the CAHH Conference of Easter 1967.{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=xx-xxi}}}}
Said resolution was promptly forwarded to Richard Allsopp, who by mid-1967 'already had some ten shoe-boxes each of about 1,000 6 × 4 cards and many loose unfiled cuttings, notes and other material [from Guyana, the Lesser Antilles, Belize, Jamaica, and Trinidad].'{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xxi}} In 1971, Allsopp introduced the Caribbean Lexicography Project as 'a survey of [English] usage in the intermediate and upper ranges of the West Indian speech continuum.'{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|p=xxi}}{{sfn|Ammon|Dittmar|Mattheier|Trudgill|2006|p=2088}} This set the stage for the seminal ''[[Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage]],'' first published 1996.{{sfn|Allsopp|2003|pp=catalogue page, xxii}}{{notetag|{{harvnb|Allsopp|2003|p=xxxi}} likens the publication to that of ''Webster's'' in 1828, the ''Dictionary of Canadian English'' in 1967, and the ''Australian National Dictionary'' in 1988.}}
== Samples ==
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2009}}
Standard English: ''''Where is that boy?'''' {{IPAc-en|hw|ɛər|_|ɪ|z|_|ð|æ|t|_|b|ɔɪ}}

*[[Barbados]]: ''''Wherr dah boi?'''' {{IPA|[hwer ɪz dæt bɔɪ]}} (spoken very quickly, [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]] with [[glottal stops]]).
*[[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina|San Andrés and Providencia]]: ''''Weh dah boi deh?'''' {{IPA|[hwe dæt bɔɪ deh]}}
*[[Jamaica]]: ''''Weh dah bwoy deh?'''' {{IPA|[weh da bwoj de]}} (sporadic rhoticity from Irish and Scottish influence); or ''''Wey iz dat boi?'''' {{IPA|[weɪ ɪz dæt bɔɪ]}} (non-rhotic and similar to the accents of southwestern England and Wales).
*[[Belize]]: ''''Weh iz dat bwoy deh?'''' {{IPA|[weh ɪz dɑt bɔɪ deɪ]}} (British and North American influence but deeper in tone).
*[[Trinidad]]: ''''Wey dat boy deh?'''' {{IPA|[weɪ dæt bɔɪ de]}}
*[[Bahamas]]: ''''Wey dat boy iz?'''' {{IPA|[weɪ dæt bɔɪ ɪz]}} (some would more likely say "bey" [beɪ] instead of "boy").
*[[Guyana]] and [[Tobago]]: ''''Weyr iz daht boy/bai?'''' {{IPA|[weɪɹ ɪz dɑt boɪ/baɪ]}} often in urban regions, or ''''Wey dat boy dey?'''' {{IPA|[weɪɹ dæt bɔɪ deɪ]}} in rural regions (many variations depending on region or descent of speaker, and competency in standard English; sporadic rhoticity).
* [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]: ''''Wey dah boy deh deh?'''' {{IPA|[weɪ dɑ bɔɪ deɪ deɪ]}} (non-rhotic).
*[[Belize]], [[Bluefields]], [[Pearl Lagoon]], [[Corn Islands]], [[Bay Islands Department]], [[Limón]], [[Bocas del Toro Province]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Cayman Islands]] and the [[Virgin Islands]]: ''''Wehr iz daht booy?'''' {{IPA|[weɹ ɪz dɑt buɪ]}} (distinct, sporadic rhoticity, pronunciation becomes quite different from Creole pronunciation).
* [[Dominica]]: ''''Weh dat boy (be) nuh?'''' {{IPA|[we dæt bɔɪ (bi) nʌ]}} (spoken harshly and with a deep tone).

The written form of the English language in the former and current British-controlled Caribbean countries conforms to the spelling and the grammar styles of Britain and in Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands conforms to the spelling and the grammar styles of United States.

==See also==
{{Portal|Caribbean}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Anguillan Creole]]
*[[Antiguan and Barbudan Creole]]
*[[Antiguan and Barbudan English]]
*[[Bajan Creole]]
*[[English in Barbados|Bajan English]]
*[[Bahamian Creole]]
*[[Bahamian English]]
*[[Bay Islands English]]
*[[Belizean Creole]]
*[[Belizean English]]
*[[Bermudian English]]
*[[Bocas del Toro Creole]]
*[[Cayman Islands English]]
*[[English-based creole languages]]
*[[Grenadian Creole English]]
*[[Guyanese Creole]]
*[[Jamaican English]]
*[[Jamaican Patois]]
*[[Limonese Creole]]
*[[Miskito Coast Creole]]
*[[Montserrat Creole]]
*[[English language in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican English]]
*[[Rama Cay Creole]]
*[[Regional accents of English speakers]]
*[[Saban English]]
*[[Saint Kitts Creole]]
*[[Samaná English]]
*[[San Andrés–Providencia Creole]]
*[[Tobagonian Creole]] 
*[[Turks and Caicos Creole]]
*[[Trinidadian Creole]]
*[[Trinidadian and Tobagonian English]]
*[[Vincentian Creole]]
*[[Virgin Islands Creole]]
*[[American and British English spelling differences]]
*[[Commonwealth English]]{{div col end}}

==Notes and references==
=== Explanatory footnotes ===
{{notefoot}}
=== Short citations ===
{{reflist}}
=== Full citations ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
# {{Cite web | url=http://www.studycountry.com/guide/GY-language.htm |work=StudyCountry.com | title=The Languages spoken in Guyana|ref={{harvid|SC|nd}}|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319204520/https://www.studycountry.com/guide/GY-language.htm|archive-date=19 March 2022|publisher=StudyCountry|place=Madrid}}
# {{cite web
|ref={{harvid|OED|2022}}
|url=https://public-oed-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/how-to-use-the-oed/key-to-pronunciation/pronunciations-for-world-englishes/
|title=Pronunciations for World Englishes
|work=OED Online
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|place=Oxford
}}
# {{cite journal
|last=Allsopp
|first=Jeannette
|date=2022
|title=Report on the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage: School Edition
|journal=Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America
|volume=43
|issue=1
|pages=215–227
|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/article/863579
|doi=10.1353/dic.2022.0011
|s2cid=252203375
|url-access=subscription
}}
# {{cite journal
|last1=Allsopp
|first1=Jeannette
|last2= Furiassi
|first2=Cristiano
|date=2020
|title= Caribbean English Phraseology in the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage: Reflections of an African Worldview
|journal=TEXTUS: English Studies in Italy
|series=
|volume=XXXIII
|issue=1
|issn=
|url=
|pages=107–125
|hdl=2318/1742260
}}
# {{cite journal
|last1=Allsopp
|first1=Jeannette
|last2= Siegel
|first2=Jason F.
|date=November 2016
|title= The work of the Caribbean Lexicographic Center: Past, present and future
|journal=
|series=
|volume=40
|issue=suppl. 1
|issn=
|url=https://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?pid=S2215-26362016000300015
|pages=15–22
|doi=10.15517/rk.v40i3.28590 
|s2cid=164845876
|doi-access=free
}}
# {{cite book
|editor-last1=Allsopp
|editor-first1=Richard
|date=2003
|edition=
|title=Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage
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|publisher= University of the West Indies Press
|isbn=9789766401450
|id={{ProQuest|2352573179}}
}}
# {{cite book
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|title=New register of Caribbean English usage
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<!-- #{{cite book|last=Aceto|first=Michael|year=2004|chapter=Eastern Caribbean English-derived language varieties: morphology and syntax|title=A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool |volume=2 |editor1-first=Edgar Werner |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=Bernd |editor2-last=Kortmann|isbn=978-3-11-017532-5|page=439|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVIBxksRuEgC&pg=PA439}} -->
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.muturzikin.com/cartesamerique/ameriqueantille.htm Linguistic map of Caribbean English dialects] from Muturzikin.com
*[http://www.wiwords.com/ Cross-Referencing West Indian Dictionary]
*{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709141457/http://www.tc.columbia.edu/students/sie/LCEjr05/pdfs/Callender.pdf |date=July 9, 2011 |title=Bajan (Barbadian) dialect in NYC }}
{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to Caribbean English
|list =
{{English dialects by continent}}
{{English official language clickable map}}
}}
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[[Category:Caribbean English| ]]