View source for Coach (sport)

{{Short description|Person involved in directing, instructing and training sportspeople}}
{{Infobox Occupation  
| image = Torre_and_coaches.jpg
| caption = [[New York Yankees]]' [[manager (baseball)|manager]] [[Joe Torre]] ''(far right)'' with coaches ''(from left to right)'' [[Kevin Long (baseball)|Kevin Long]], [[Ron Guidry]], and [[Don Mattingly]]
| official_names = Athletic coach, sports coach
| activity_sector = [[Physical education]], [[determinacy]]
| employment_field = [[School]]s 
| related_occupation = [[Teacher]], [[sports agent]] }}
An '''athletic coach''' is a person [[coaching]] in [[sport]], involved in the direction, instruction, and training of a [[sports team]] or [[athlete]].

== History ==
The original sense of the word ''Coach'' is that of a [[Coach (carriage)|horse-drawn carriage]], deriving ultimately from the Hungarian city of [[Kocs]] where such vehicles were first made. Students at the [[University of Oxford]] in the early nineteenth century used the slang word to refer to a private tutor who would drive a less able student through his examinations just like [[horse driving]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-02-27 |title=The origin of the word Coach |url=https://www.thecoachpartnership.com/the-origin-of-the-word-coach/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Britain took the lead in upgrading the status of sports in the 19th century. For sports to become professionalized, "coacher" had to become established. It gradually professionalized in the Victorian era and the role was well established by 1914. In the First World War, military units sought out the coaches to supervise physical conditioning and develop morale-building teams.<ref>Dave Day, ''Professionals, Amateurs and Performance: Sports Coaching in England, 1789–1914''(2012)</ref>

== Effectiveness ==
[[John Wooden]] had a [[philosophy]] of coaching that encouraged planning, organization, and [[understanding]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gallimore|first1=Ronald|last2=Tharp|first2=Roland|date=2004-06-01|title=What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher, 1975-2004: Reflections and Reanalysis of John Wooden's Teaching Practices|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/tsp/18/2/article-p119.xml|journal=The Sport Psychologist|language=en-US|volume=18|issue=2|pages=119–137|doi=10.1123/tsp.18.2.119|issn=0888-4781|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and that [[knowledge]] was important but not everything when being an effective coach.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gilbert|first1=Wade D.|last2=Trudel|first2=Pierre|date=2004|title=Analysis of coaching science research published from 1970-2001|journal=Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport|volume=75|issue=4|pages=388–399|doi=10.1080/02701367.2004.10609172|issn=0270-1367|pmid=15673038|s2cid=29286247}}</ref> Traditionally coaching expertise or effectiveness has been measured by win–loss percentage, satisfaction of players, or years of coaching experience,<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Côté|first1=Jean|last2=Gilbert|first2=Wade|date=2009-09-01|title=An Integrative Definition of Coaching Effectiveness and Expertise|url=https://doi.org/10.1260/174795409789623892|journal=International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching|language=en|volume=4|issue=3|pages=307–323|doi=10.1260/174795409789623892|hdl=1974/14380|s2cid=53352502|issn=1747-9541|hdl-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> but like in [[teacher]] expertise those metrics are highly ambiguous.<ref name="O'Sullivan 176–185">{{Cite journal|last1=O'Sullivan|first1=Mary|last2=Doutis|first2=Panayiotis|date=1994-05-01|title=Research on Expertise: Guideposts for Expertise and Teacher Education in Physical Education|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1994.10484119|journal=Quest|volume=46|issue=2|pages=176–185|doi=10.1080/00336297.1994.10484119|issn=0033-6297|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Coaching expertise or effectiveness describes good coaching,<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Lyle|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88iAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Sports Coaching Concepts: A Framework for Coaches' Behaviour|date=2005-09-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-50698-9|language=en}}</ref> which looks at coaching behaviour,<ref name=Horn>{{Cite book|last=Horn |first=T. S. |year=2008 |chapter=Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain |editor=T. S. Horn |title=Advances in Sport Psychology |edition=3rd |publisher=Human Kinetics |chapter-url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-01583-011|language=en}}</ref> dispositions, [[education]], experience,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Côté|first1=Jean|last2=Saimela|first2=John|last3=Trudel|first3=Pierre|last4=Baria|first4=Abderrahim|last5=Russell|first5=Storm|date=1995-03-01|title=The Coaching Model: A Grounded Assessment of Expert Gymnastic Coaches' Knowledge|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/17/1/article-p1.xml|journal=Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology|language=en-US|volume=17|issue=1|pages=1–17|doi=10.1123/jsep.17.1.1|issn=1543-2904|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=John R. |title=Acquisition of cognitive skill. |journal=Psychological Review |date=July 1982 |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=369–406 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.89.4.369}}</ref>

A widely used definition of effective coaching is "the consistent application of integrated professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge, to improve athletes competence, confidence, connection, and character in specific coaching contexts".<ref name=":02"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sports coaching : professionalisation and practice|date=2010|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|others=John Lyle, Chris Cushion|isbn=978-0-7020-3054-3|location=Edinburgh|oclc=455871432}}</ref>

=== Knowledge ===
Coaches need [[descriptive knowledge]] and [[procedural knowledge]] that can relate to all aspects of coaching, with expert coaches using tacit [[knowledge]] more freely.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nash|first1=Christine|last2=Collins|first2=Dave|date=2006-11-01|title=Tacit Knowledge in Expert Coaching: Science or Art?|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2006.10491894|journal=Quest|volume=58|issue=4|pages=465–477|doi=10.1080/00336297.2006.10491894|s2cid=28081721|issn=0033-6297|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Teachers' knowledge has been categorized,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SHULMAN|first=LEE S.|date=1986-02-01|title=Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching|url=https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015002004|journal=Educational Researcher|language=en|volume=15|issue=2|pages=4–14|doi=10.3102/0013189X015002004|s2cid=1673489|issn=0013-189X|hdl=20.500.12209/225|hdl-access=free}}</ref> like coaches knowledge with various terms being used.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=BERLINER|first=DAVID C.|date=1986-08-01|title=In Pursuit of the Expert Pedagogue|url=https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015007007|journal=Educational Researcher|language=en|volume=15|issue=7|pages=5–13|doi=10.3102/0013189X015007007|s2cid=10099407|issn=0013-189X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Such terms assist players and athletes' understand what the coach is trying to get them to execute. Augmented feedback is one of the terms used, which is the term used for the different ways a coach can give evaluations.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134489060 |title=Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice |date=2004-07-31 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-64656-4 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=A. Mark |edition=0 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780203646564 |editor-last2=Hodges |editor-first2=Nicola J.}}</ref> Many categories fall under content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical-content knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berliner|first=David C.|date=1991-03-01|title=Educational Psychology and Pedagogical Expertise: New Findings and New Opportunities for Thinking About Training|url=https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2602_6|journal=Educational Psychologist|volume=26|issue=2|pages=145–155|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep2602_6|issn=0046-1520|url-access=subscription}}</ref> When considering the need to build relationships with others<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Becker|first=Andrea J.|date=2009-03-01|title=It's Not What They Do, It's How They Do It: Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching|journal=International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=93–119|doi=10.1260/1747-9541.4.1.93|s2cid=145755762|issn=1747-9541|doi-access=}}</ref> and athletes,<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|chapter= |doi=10.5040/9781492595878 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-01231-002|access-date=2021-11-15|language=en |title=Social Psychology in Sport |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-4925-9587-8 |editor-last1=Jowett |editor-last2=Lavallee |editor-first1=Sophia |editor-first2=David }}</ref> interpersonal knowledge has been included.<ref name=":4" /> Then when considering [[professional development]], which requires the skills to learn from experience<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nater|first=Swen|title=You haven't taught until they have learned : John Wooden's teaching principles and practices|date=2006|publisher=Fitness Information Technology|others=Ronald Gallimore|isbn=1-885693-66-4|location=Morgantown, WV|oclc=62348868}}</ref> while utilizing [[reflective practice]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gilbert|first1=Wade D.|last2=Trudel|first2=Pierre|date=2001-10-01|title=Learning to Coach through Experience: Reflection in Model Youth Sport Coaches|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jtpe/21/1/article-p16.xml|journal=Journal of Teaching in Physical Education|language=en-US|volume=21|issue=1|pages=16–34|doi=10.1123/jtpe.21.1.16|issn=1543-2769|url-access=subscription}}</ref> intrapersonal knowledge has been included.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Collinson|first=Vivienne|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED401227|title=Becoming an Exemplary Teacher: Integrating Professional, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal Knowledge|date=1996|language=en}}</ref>

It is rare in professional sport for a team not to hire a former professional player, but playing and coaching have different knowledge bases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mielke|first=Danny|date=2007-06-01|title=Coaching Experience, Playing Experience and Coaching Tenure|url=https://doi.org/10.1260/174795407781394293|journal=International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching|language=en|volume=2|issue=2|pages=105–108|doi=10.1260/174795407781394293|s2cid=143760422|issn=1747-9541|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The combination of professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge can lead to good thinking habits, maturity,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Heath|first=Douglas H.|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED386813|title=Schools of Hope: Developing Mind and Character in Today's Youth. The Jossey-Bass Education Series|date=1994|publisher=Jossey-Bass, Inc|isbn=978-1-55542-616-3|language=en}}</ref> wisdom,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arlin|first=Patricia Kennedy|date=1993-01-01|title=Wisdom and expertise in teaching: An integration of perspectives|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1041-6080%2893%2990017-M|journal=Learning and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=5|issue=4|pages=341–349|doi=10.1016/1041-6080(93)90017-M|issn=1041-6080|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and capacity to make reasonable judgements.<ref name=":02"/>

=== Professionalism ===
The subject, sport, curricular, and [[Pedagogy|pedagogical]] knowledge all fall under this category of professional coaches knowledge.<ref name=":4" /> Including the "''ologies''" of [[sports science]] like;<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Cassidy |first1=Tania |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203797952/understanding-sports-coaching-tania-cassidy-robyn-jones-paul-potrac |title=Understanding Sports Coaching: The Pedagogical, Social and Cultural Foundations of Coaching Practice |last2=Jones |first2=Robyn L. |last3=Potrac |first3=Paul |date=2015-10-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-79795-2 |edition=3 |location=London |doi=10.4324/9780203797952 |author-link=Tania Cassidy}}</ref> [[sport psychology]], [[Sports biomechanics|sport biomechanics]], [[Sports nutrition|sport nutrition]], [[exercise physiology]], [[motor control]], [[critical thinking]], [[sociology]], [[Strength and conditioning coach|strength and conditioning]], and sporting tactics,<ref>{{cite web|author=Marthaler, Jon|date=10 May 2013|title=In soccer, the game plan isn't quite the same|website=[[Star Tribune]]|url=http://www.startribune.com/sports/blogs/206876441.html|access-date=30 November 2013}}</ref> with all the associated sub areas of knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=Andy|last2=Collins|first2=Dave|last3=Martindale|first3=Russell|date=2006|title=The coaching schematic: validation through expert coach consensus|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=24|issue=6|pages=549–564|doi=10.1080/02640410500189173|issn=0264-0414|pmid=16611568|s2cid=6817036 }}</ref> This category of knowledge is what most coach education has been focused on <ref name=":6">{{Citation|last1=TRUDEL|first1=PIERRE|title=Coaching and Coach Education|date=2006|url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/hdbk_physed/n29.xml|work=Handbook of Physical Education|pages=516–539|place=London|publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd|access-date=2021-11-16|last2=GILBERT|first2=WADE|doi=10.4135/9781848608009 |isbn=9780761944126 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> but this alone is not enough to be an effective coach.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rieke|first1=Micah|last2=Hammermeister|first2=Jon|last3=Chase|first3=Matthew|date=2008-06-01|title=Servant Leadership in Sport: A New Paradigm for Effective Coach Behavior|url=https://doi.org/10.1260/174795408785100635|journal=International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=227–239|doi=10.1260/174795408785100635|s2cid=53520328|issn=1747-9541|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Coaching is not just about sport specific skills <ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Smoll|first=Frank L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpqBAAAAMAAJ|title=Children and Youth in Sport: A Biopsychosocial Perspective|date=2002|publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub.|isbn=978-0-7872-8223-3|language=en}}</ref> and education,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drewe|first=Sheryle Bergmann|date=2000-02-01|title=An Examination of the Relationship Between Coaching and Teaching|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2000.10491702|journal=Quest|volume=52|issue=1|pages=79–88|doi=10.1080/00336297.2000.10491702|s2cid=144582950|issn=0033-6297|url-access=subscription}}</ref> especially when taking a [[Holistic education|holistic]] approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Potrac|first1=Paul|last2=Brewer|first2=Clive|last3=Jones|first3=Robyn|last4=Armour|first4=Kathleen|last5=Hoff|first5=Jan|date=2000-05-01|title=Toward an Holistic Understanding of the Coaching Process|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2000.10491709|journal=Quest|volume=52|issue=2|pages=186–199|doi=10.1080/00336297.2000.10491709|s2cid=145773702|issn=0033-6297|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Keeping sports people safe,<ref>{{cite web|last=Kliff|first=Sarah|date=2009-10-19|title=Heading Off Sports Injuries, ''Newsweek'', 5 February 2010|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/233115|access-date=2018-02-26|publisher=Newsweek.com}}</ref> and healthy <ref>{{cite web|last=Baker|first=Mark|title=Oregon Senate Bill 348|url=http://special.registerguard.com/csp/cms/sites/web/updates/7502120-55/story.csp|access-date=2018-02-26|publisher=Special.registerguard.com}}</ref> while participating are responsibilities of a coach as well as awareness of social factors like the [[relative age effect]].

=== Interpersonality ===
Much of coaching involves interacting with players, staff, community, opposition, and then family members in youth sport.<ref name=":4" /> The relationships built in a sports team influence the social interactions which can affect player performance and development, fan culture,<ref>{{Citation|last1=JONES|first1=ROBYN L.|title=The coach as 'orchestrator': more realistically managing the complex coaching context|date=2006|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203020074-16/coach-orchestrator-realistically-managing-complex-coaching-context-robyn-jones-mike-wallace|work=The Sports Coach as Educator|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203020074-16|isbn=978-0-203-02007-4|access-date=2021-11-16|last2=WALLACE|first2=MIKE|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and in [[Professional sports|professional sport]], financial backing. Effective coaches have knowledge that helps in all social contexts to make the best of each situation,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cushion|first1=Christopher J.|last2=Armour|first2=Kathleen M.|last3=Jones|first3=Robyn L.|date=2006-02-01|title=Locating the coaching process in practice: models 'for' and 'of' coaching|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980500466995|journal=Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy|volume=11|issue=1|pages=83–99|doi=10.1080/17408980500466995|s2cid=144627986|issn=1740-8989|url-access=subscription}}</ref> with the coach–athlete relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bruner|first1=Mark W.|last2=Erickson|first2=Karl|last3=McFadden|first3=Kimberley|last4=Côté|first4=Jean|date=2009-03-01|title=Tracing the origins of athlete development models in sport: a citation path analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840802687631|journal=International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology|volume=2|issue=1|pages=23–37|doi=10.1080/17509840802687631|hdl=1974/14394|s2cid=144242608|issn=1750-984X|hdl-access=free}}</ref> being one of the most crucial to get right.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bowes|first1=Imornefe|last2=Jones|first2=Robyn L.|date=2006-06-01|title=Working at the Edge of Chaos: Understanding Coaching as a Complex, Interpersonal System|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/tsp/20/2/article-p235.xml|journal=The Sport Psychologist|language=en-US|volume=20|issue=2|pages=235–245|doi=10.1123/tsp.20.2.235|issn=0888-4781|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Excellent communication skills are imperative for coaches in order to provide their athletes with the adequate skills, knowledge and mental as well as tactical ability.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jowett |first=Sophia |title=The coach-athlete partnership |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290265291 |website=researchgate.net |publisher=The Psychologist |access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Louise |last2=Jowett |first2=Sophia |last3=Tafvelin |first3=Susanne |title=Communication Strategies: The Fuel for Quality Coach-Athlete Relationships and Athlete Satisfaction |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |year=2019 |volume=10 |page=2156 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02156 |pmid=31607989 |pmc=6770846 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Intrapersonality ===
A coaches ability to improve relies on [[professional development]] in continued [[learning]] which uses a combination of [[evaluation]] and [[reflective practice]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315761114/becoming-sports-coach-james-wallis-john-lambert|title=Becoming a Sports Coach|date=2015-11-20|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-76111-4|editor-last=Wallis|editor-first=James|location=London|doi=10.4324/9781315761114|editor-last2=Lambert|editor-first2=John}}</ref> Their recognition of personal ethical views and disposition are also elements of intrapersonal knowledge.<ref name=":4" /> The [[understanding]] of oneself and ability to use introspection and reflection are [[skill]]s that take time to develop,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knowles|first1=Zoe|last2=Gilbourne|first2=David|last3=Borrie|first3=Andy|last4=Nevill|first4=Alan|date=2001-06-01|title=Developing the Reflective Sports Coach: A study exploring the processes of reflective practice within a higher education coaching programme|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940123820|journal=Reflective Practice|volume=2|issue=2|pages=185–207|doi=10.1080/14623940123820|s2cid=145406552|issn=1462-3943|url-access=subscription}}</ref> using [[deliberate practice]] in each changing context.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knowles|first1=Zoë|last2=Tyler|first2=Gareth|last3=Gilbourne|first3=David|last4=Eubank|first4=Martin|date=2006-05-01|title=Reflecting on reflection: exploring the practice of sports coaching graduates|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940600688423|journal=Reflective Practice|volume=7|issue=2|pages=163–179|doi=10.1080/14623940600688423|s2cid=143452503|issn=1462-3943|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Coaching expertise requires this knowledge much like teachers <ref name="O'Sullivan 176–185"/> as each experience can confirm or contradict a prior belief in player performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=Lee J.|last2=Cushion|first2=Christopher J.|date=2006-06-01|title=Reflection in Coach Education: The Case of the National Governing Body Coaching Certificate|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/tsp/20/2/article-p174.xml|journal=The Sport Psychologist|language=en-US|volume=20|issue=2|pages=174–183|doi=10.1123/tsp.20.2.174|issn=0888-4781|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The internal and external framing of a coaches role can impact their reflection,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gilbert|first1=Wade D.|last2=Trudel|first2=Pierre|date=2004-03-01|title=Role of the Coach: How Model Youth Team Sport Coaches Frame Their Roles|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/tsp/18/1/article-p21.xml|journal=The Sport Psychologist|language=en-US|volume=18|issue=1|pages=21–43|doi=10.1123/tsp.18.1.21|issn=0888-4781|url-access=subscription}}</ref> suggesting perspective can be a limitation promoting the idea of a coaching community for feedback.

== Athlete outcomes ==
The coaching behavior assessment system has been used <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=R. E.|last2=Smoll|first2=F. L.|last3=Hunt|first3=E.|date=1977|title=A system for the behavioral assessment of athletic coaches|journal=Research Quarterly|volume=48|issue=2|pages=401–407|issn=0034-5377|pmid=267981}}</ref> to show that coaching knowledge and behavior have significant influence on participants psychological profile affecting [[self-esteem]], [[motivation]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mageau|first1=Geneviève A.|last2=Vallerand|first2=Robert J.|date=2003|title=The coach-athlete relationship: a motivational model|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=21|issue=11|pages=883–904|doi=10.1080/0264041031000140374|issn=0264-0414|pmid=14626368|s2cid=702444}}</ref> satisfaction, attitudes,<ref name=":12"/> perceived [[Competence (human resources)|competence]],<ref name=":02" /> and performance.<ref name=":42" /> For a coach to be seen as effective, the people they work with should be improving,<ref name=Horn/> with expert coaches being able to sustain that over an extended period of time.<ref name=":5" /> There are various areas of development that can be categorized, which was first done with a 5 C's model: competence, [[confidence]], connection, character and compassion <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jelicic|first1=Helena|last2=Bobek|first2=Deborah L.|last3=Phelps|first3=Erin|last4=Lerner|first4=Richard M.|last5=Lerner|first5=Jacqueline V.|date=2007-05-01|title=Using positive youth development to predict contribution and risk behaviors in early adolescence: Findings from the first two waves of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407076439|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Development|language=en|volume=31|issue=3|pages=263–273|doi=10.1177/0165025407076439|s2cid=145760312|issn=0165-0254|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and was then later shortened to a 4 C's model by combining character and compassion.<ref name=":22"/>

People's competence can relate to their sport-specific technical and tactical skills, performance skills, improved health and fitness, and overall training habits. Their confidence relating to an internal sense of overall positive self-worth. Having a good connections is the positive bonds and social relationships with people inside and outside of the sporting context. Then character is respect for the sport and other participating showing good levels of [[morality]], [[integrity]], [[empathy]], and [[Social responsibility|responsibility]].<ref name=":02" />

The competence of a person is linked to leadership<ref name=":42">{{Citation|last=Chelladurai|first=Packianathan|title=Leadership in Sports|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118270011.ch5|work=Handbook of Sport Psychology|year=2012|pages=111–135|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118270011.ch5|isbn=978-1-118-27001-1|access-date=2021-11-15|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and centered around becoming a self-reliant member of a sports team and society in the coaching context.<ref name=":22"/> Competencies have guided much of sport psychology<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weiss|first=Maureen R.|date=2008-12-01|title=2007 C. H. McCloy Lecture|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2008.10599510|journal=Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport|volume=79|issue=4|pages=434–449|doi=10.1080/02701367.2008.10599510|issn=0270-1367|pmid=19177945|s2cid=45415254|url-access=subscription}}</ref> supporting positive youth development.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Holt|first1=Nicholas L.|title=Positive Youth Development Through Sport|date=2020|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119568124.ch20|work=Handbook of Sport Psychology|pages=429–446|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781119568124.ch20|isbn=978-1-119-56812-4|access-date=2021-11-19|last2=Deal|first2=Colin J.|last3=Pankow|first3=Kurtis|s2cid=226196566|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The [[self-determination theory]] suggests an environment that supports autonomous decision making, can help develop competence, confidence, and connection to others affecting motivation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deci|first1=Edward L.|last2=Ryan|first2=Richard M.|date=2000-10-01|title=The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior|url=https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01|journal=Psychological Inquiry|volume=11|issue=4|pages=227–268|doi=10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01|s2cid=15542489|issn=1047-840X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Effective coaches therefore create supportive environments <ref>{{Cite book|title=Applied sport psychology : personal growth to peak performance|date=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|others=Jean M. Williams|isbn=978-0-07-337653-0|edition=6th|location=New York|oclc=286446833}}</ref> while building good relationships with the people they coach.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter= |doi=10.5040/9781492595878 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-01231-002|access-date=2021-11-19|language=en |title=Social Psychology in Sport |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-4925-9587-8 |editor-last1=Jowett |editor-last2=Lavallee |editor-first1=Sophia |editor-first2=David }}</ref>

=== Support staff ===
In professional sports, a coach is usually supported by one or more assistant coaches and a specialist team including [[Sports science|sports scientists]]. The staff may include coordinators, [[Strength and conditioning coach|a strength and conditioning coach]], [[Sport psychology|sport psychologist]], [[Physical therapy|physiotherapist]], [[nutritionist]], [[Sports biomechanics|biomechanist]], or [[sports analyst]].

== Association football ==
{{See also|Manager (association football)}}

[[File:Liverpool's coaching staff 2012 preseason.jpg|thumb|right|The coaching team of the [[Liverpool Football Club]] monitoring players during a training session]]
In [[association football]], the roles of a coach can vary depending on the level of seniority they are coaching at, the professional level that they are coaching at, and the country they are coaching in, amongst others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Trevor P. |last2=Oades |first2=Lindsay G. |last3=Vella |first3=Stewart A. |title=The relationship between coach leadership, the coach–athlete relationship, team success, and the positive developmental experiences of adolescent soccer players |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17408989.2012.726976 |journal=Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy |year=2013 |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=549–561 |publisher=Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy Volume 18, 2013 - Issue 5 |doi=10.1080/17408989.2012.726976 |s2cid=37914526 |access-date=23 May 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In youth football, the duties of a coach is primarily to aid in the development of technical skills.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fai.ie/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100028&Itemid=291|title=Phase 1 – The FUNdamental Phase|publisher=[[Football Association of Ireland]]|date=12 June 2009|access-date=12 December 2010}}</ref> Additional skills that are important for a coach to help youth players develop is motor skills, stamina and the ability to read the game of play accordingly.

A solid foundation of tactical awareness is imperative for youth players to develop, because by the time they reach senior level (aged 18 and over), they are expected to know the tactical basis of the game - first team coaches at senior level do not actively teach tactics, they mainly just implement them. Therefore, youth coaches need to have a solid understanding of the [[association football tactics|tactics]] of the game, so that they can facilitate, as a pedagogue, for their players' growth also on the tactical level.

In professional football, the role of the coach or trainer is focused on the training and development of a club's first team.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dawson |first1=Peter |last2=Dobson |first2=Stephen |last3=Gerrard |first3=Bill |title=Estimating Coaching Efficiency in Professional Team Sports: Evidence from English Association Football |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9485.00170 |journal=Scottish Journal of Political Economy |year=2000 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=399–421 |publisher=Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Volume47, Issue4, September 2000 |doi=10.1111/1467-9485.00170 |access-date=23 May 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This means that the head coach is responsible for the first team strategy, development, training session schedule and player development. The head coach is accompanied by one or more assistant coaches, and is also assisted by medical staff and [[athletic trainer]]s. A first team coach at a professional level is expecting of players to already be well-versed into the (general) tactics of football, so that the coach can instead focus on implementing their version of football tactics (style of play) into the team.

In English football, the director of a professional football team is commonly awarded the position of [[Manager (association football)|manager]], a role that combines the duties of coach and sporting director.

All coaches of association football teams need to carefully consider the tactical ability and skill level of their teams when selecting tactics and strategy for games as well as practice.

==Ice hockey==
{{See also|Coach (ice hockey)}}
The coach in [[ice hockey]] is the person responsible for directing the team during games and practices, prepares strategy and decides which players will participate in games.<ref>{{cite book | last=Diamond| first=Dan| title=Total Hockey| page=[https://archive.org/details/totalhockeyoffic0000unse/page/616 616]| publisher=Andrews McMeel Publishing|year=1998| isbn=0-8362-7114-9| url=https://archive.org/details/totalhockeyoffic0000unse/page/616}}</ref>

== United Kingdom ==
{{Original research|section|date=May 2017}}

=== Cricket ===
{{Main cat|Cricket coaches}}
Coaches have much less of a role in [[cricket]] matches than in other sports, with the [[captain (cricket)|team captain]] making most strategic decisions for their team. During the game, cricket coaches generally focus on occasionally sending out messages or feedback to the team, especially during breaks in the play such as [[Time-out (sport)#Cricket|time-outs]]; otherwise, most coaches have an auxiliary role in helping the players practice, with each one generally specializing in improving the [[batting (cricket)|batting]] and [[bowling (cricket)|bowling]] skills of the players.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-11-02|title=Support staff and their roles in cricket teams|url=https://www.crictracker.com/support-staff-roles-cricket-teams/|access-date=2020-12-19|website=CricTracker|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-21|title=What Makes A Good Cricket Coach? {{!}} Almanack {{!}} Wisden Cricket|url=https://wisden.com/almanack/what-makes-a-good-cricket-coach|access-date=2020-12-19|website=Wisden|language=en-GB |last1=Gede |first1=Roshan }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Dean|date=2018-02-09|title=Why cricket coaches need to have more say|url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/cricket/why-cricket-coaches-need-to-have-more-say-20180208-p4yzpc.html|access-date=2020-12-19|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en}}</ref> In recent years, [[fielding (cricket)|fielding]] coaches have received more priority, as the [[short form cricket|shorter formats]] of the game have made good fielding more valuable.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How T20 has juiced fielding|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/tim-wigmore-talks-to-trevor-penney-and-mike-young-about-how-t20-has-influenced-fielding-977503|access-date=2020-12-19|website=ESPNcricinfo|language=en}}</ref>

== United States ==
{{Original research|section|date=May 2017}}
{{multiple image |
|width1 = 225 |image1 = 2011 Okemos High School Girls' Water Polo State Championship Team.jpg
|width2 = 100 |image2 = TWU Gymnastics (Bars) Amy Winczura (5694030475).jpg
|footer = ''Left:'' A U.S. high school girls' [[water polo]] team (with their male coaches in background) posing with their trophy. ''Right:'' A U.S. university girl practicing a difficult [[gymnastics]] manoeuvre under the watchful eyes of her coach.}}
All major U.S. collegiate sports have associations for their coaches to engage in professional development activities, but some sports' professional coaches have less formal associations, without developing into a group resembling a [[labor union|union]] in the way that athletic players in many leagues have.

U.S. collegiate coaching contracts require termination without the payment of a settlement if the coach is found to be in serious violation of named rules, usually with regard to the recruiting or retention of players in violation of [[amateur]] status.

The [[Head coach#National Football League|NFL head coaches]] have an association, called [[NFL Coaches Association]] (NFLCA), which includes almost all the coaches in the NFL.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Bill Belichick and some players are not depicted in 'Madden NFL' or other video games |url=https://www.cbssports.com/nfl/news/why-bill-belichick-and-some-players-are-not-depicted-in-madden-nfl-or-other-video-games/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=CBSSports.com |date=2 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

=== American baseball ===
{{Main|Coach (baseball)}}
{{See also|Manager (baseball)}}
At [[baseball]]'s professional level in North America, the person who heads the coaching staff does not use the title of "head coach", but is instead called the [[Manager (baseball)|field manager]]. Baseball "coaches" at that level are members of the coaching staff under the overall supervision of the manager, with each coach having a specialized role. The baseball field manager is essentially equivalent a head coach in other American professional sports leagues; player transactions are handled by the [[General manager (baseball)|general manager]]. The term ''manager'' used without qualification almost always refers to the field manager, while the general manager is often called the GM.

At amateur levels, the terminology is more similar to that of other sports. The person known as the "manager" in professional leagues is generally called the "head coach" in amateur leagues; this terminology is standard in [[College baseball|U.S. college baseball]].

=== American football ===
In [[American football]], like many other sports, there are many coaches and assistant coaches. American football includes a [[head coach]], [[Head Coach#Roles|associate/assistant  head coach]], an [[offensive coordinator]], a [[defensive coordinator]], a [[special teams coordinator]], [[Position coach|position coaches]], among other assistant coaches which can include passing game coordinator, running game coordinator, and [[Advisor#Other|advisors]]. They're support staff such as [[strength and conditioning coach]], [[Quality control coach|quality control]], [[Sports analyst|analyst]], and recruiting coaches.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.philadelphiaeagles.com/team/coaches.html | title=Coaches | website=PhiladelphiaEagles.com | access-date=30 November 2013}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Head coach]] ([[American football]])
* [[Fitness professional]]
* [[Manager (association football)]]
* [[Coach (baseball)]]
* [[Manager (baseball)]]
* [[Coach (basketball)]]
* [[Manager (Gaelic games)]]
* [[Coach (ice hockey)]]
* [[Player-coach]]
* [[Player-manager]]
* [[Coaching staff]]
* [[Coaching tree]]
* [[Coach of the Year]]
* [[Personal trainer]]
* [[Sports trainer]]
* [[Strength and conditioning coach]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Coach (Sport)}}
[[Category:Sports coaches| ]]
[[Category:Education and training occupations]]
[[Category:Leadership positions in sports]]
[[Category:Management occupations]]