View source for Self-driving car

{{Short description|Vehicle operated with reduced human input}}
{{About|the road vehicle type|the general concept|Vehicular automation|wider applications|Unmanned ground vehicle}}
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{{Use American English|date=November 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Self-driving car}}

A '''self-driving car''', also known as an''' autonomous car''' ('''AC'''), '''driverless car''', '''robotic car''' or '''robo-car''',<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Taeihagh|first1=Araz|last2=Lim|first2=Hazel Si Min|date=2 January 2019|title=Governing autonomous vehicles: emerging responses for safety, liability, privacy, cybersecurity, and people risk|journal=Transport Reviews|volume=39|issue=1|pages=103–128|doi=10.1080/01441647.2018.1494640|issn=0144-1647|arxiv=1807.05720|s2cid=49862783}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-selfdriving-uber/self-driving-uber-car-kills-arizona-woman-crossing-street-idUSKBN1GV296 |title=Self-driving Uber car kills Arizona woman crossing street |first1=Sydney|last1=Maki|first2=Alexandria |last2=Sage |date=19 March 2018 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="thrun2010toward">{{cite journal|last=Thrun|first=Sebastian|year=2010|title=Toward Robotic Cars|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=53|issue=4|pages=99–106|doi=10.1145/1721654.1721679|s2cid=207177792}}</ref> is a [[car]] that is capable of operating with reduced or no [[User input|human input]].<ref name="tits">{{Cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=S. |last2=Hu |first2=J. |last3= Bhowmick |first3=P. |last4=Ding, Z.; Arvin, F. |title=Distributed Motion Planning for Safe Autonomous Vehicle Overtaking via Artificial Potential Field |journal=IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems |year=2022|volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=21531–21547 |doi=10.1109/TITS.2022.3189741 |bibcode=2022ITITr..2321531X |s2cid=250588120 |url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1196977 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|last1=Gehrig|first1=Stefan K.|last2=Stein|first2=Fridtjof J.|year=1999|title=Dead reckoning and cartography using stereo vision for an automated car|conference=IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems |location=Kyongju|volume=3|pages=1507–1512|doi=10.1109/IROS.1999.811692|isbn=0-7803-5184-3}}</ref> They are sometimes called '''[[robotaxi|robotaxis]]''', though this term refers specifically to self-driving cars operated for a [[ridesharing company]]. Self-driving cars are responsible for all driving activities, such as perceiving the environment, monitoring important systems, and controlling the vehicle, which includes navigating from origin to destination.<ref name="tvt">{{Cite journal|title=Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control for Connected Autonomous Vehicles Using Spring Damping Energy Model |last1=Xie |first1=S. |last2=Hu |first2=J. |last3= Ding |first3=Z. |last4=Arvin |first4=F.|journal=IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology |year=2023|volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=2974–2987 |doi=10.1109/TVT.2022.3218575 |bibcode=2023ITVT...72.2974X |s2cid=253359200 |url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1189618 }}</ref>

{{As of|2024|pre=late}}, no system has achieved full autonomy (SAE Level 5). In December 2020, [[Waymo]] was the first to offer rides in self-driving taxis to the public in limited geographic areas (SAE Level 4),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanohnsman/2024/01/08/waymos-robotaxis-are-hitting-the-highway-a-first-for-self-driving-cars/|title=Waymo's Robotaxis are Hitting the Highway, A First For Self Driving Cars|website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2024}} and {{As of|2024|April|lc=y}} offers services in Arizona (Phoenix) and California (San Francisco and Los Angeles). In June 2024, after a Waymo self-driving taxi crashed into a utility pole in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], all 672 of its [[Jaguar I-Pace]] vehicles were recalled after they were found to have susceptibility to crashing into pole-like items and had their software updated.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Valdes-Dapena |first=Peter |date=2024-06-13 |title=Waymo recalls driverless cars to make them less likely to drive into poles {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/13/business/waymo-recalls-driverless-cars-poles/index.html |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=Bellan |first=Rebecca |date=2024-06-12 |title=Waymo issues second recall after robotaxi hit telephone pole |url=https://techcrunch.com/2024/06/12/waymo-second-robotaxi-recall-autonomous-vehicle/ |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Waymo recalls software in all its cars after its robotaxi crashes into a pole |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/waymo-recalls-software-cars-robotaxi-crash-rcna157030 |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref> In July 2021, [[DeepRoute.ai]] started offering self-driving taxi rides in Shenzhen, China. Starting in February 2022, [[Cruise (autonomous vehicle)|Cruise]] offered self-driving taxi service in San Francisco,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Vijayenthiran |first=Viknesh |date=2 February 2022 |title=Cruise opens up driverless taxi service to public in San Francisco |work=Motor Authority |url=https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1132494_cruise-opens-up-driverless-taxi-service-to-public-in-san-francisco |access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> but suspended service in 2023. In 2021, [[Honda]] was the first manufacturer to sell an SAE [[#Level 3 – Conditional Automation|Level 3]] car,<ref name="Honda-Legend" /><ref name="mainichi" /><ref name="car_and_driver_2021-03" /> followed by [[Mercedes-Benz]] in 2023.<ref name = "Mercedes-Benz 2023"/>
{|style="margin: 0 auto;"
|[[File:Waymo Jaguar I-Pace in San Francisco 2023 dllu.jpg|thumb|A [[Waymo]]-operated [[Jaguar I-Pace]] in San Francisco, 2023. This model was recalled after a crash into a pole.<ref name=":20" />]]
|[[File:Roborace NYC ePrix.jpg|thumb|[[Roborace]] autonomous racing car on display at the [[2017 New York City ePrix]]]]
|}
[[File:Baidu self-driving car in Wuhan, China.webm|thumb|[[Baidu]] self-driving car]]
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== History ==
{{Main|History of self-driving cars}}
Experiments have been conducted on [[advanced driver assistance systems]] (ADAS) since at least the 1920s.<ref>{{cite news |date=1926 |title='Phantom Auto' will tour city |work= Milwaukee Sentinel |page=4 }} Cited in {{cite conference |doi=10.1145/3290589.3290599 |isbn=9781450366205 |s2cid=58534759 
|last1=Munir|first1= Farzeen |last2= Azam |first2= Shoaib |last3= Hussain |first3= Muhammad Ishfaq |last4= Sheri |first4= Ahmed Muqeem |last5= Jeon|first5= Moongu
|title = Autonomous Vehicle: The Architecture Aspect of Self Driving Car |date=2018| publisher = Association for Computing Machinery| conference=Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Sensors, Signal and Image Processing
}}</ref> The first ADAS system was [[cruise control]], which was invented in 1948 by [[Ralph Teetor]].

Trials began in the 1950s. The first semi-autonomous car was developed in 1977, by Japan's Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.<ref>{{Cite journal 
|title= Review on self-driving cars using neural network architectures
|last1=Srinivas |first1=Rao P|author2=Rohan Gudla |author3= Vijay Shankar Telidevulapalli |author4= Jayasree Sarada Kota |author5= Gayathri Mandha |journal= World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews|date =2022 |volume=16 |number=2|pages= 736–746 |doi= 10.30574/wjarr.2022.16.2.1240 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Tsukuba-Mechanical-Engineering-Lab-Japan-1977-computerized-driverless-car-achieved-spe_fig2_365874855|doi-access=free }}</ref> It required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an analog computer. The vehicle reached speeds of {{convert|30|km/h|abbr=on}} with the support of an elevated rail.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/02/autonomous-vehicle-history/|title=Autonomous Cars Through The Ages|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|first1=Tom |last1=Vanderbilt|access-date=26 July 2018|date=6 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/where-to-a-history-of-autonomous-vehicles/|title=Where to? A History of Autonomous Vehicles|website=Computer History Museum|first=Marc|last=Weber|access-date=26 July 2018|date=8 May 2014}}</ref>

[[Carnegie Mellon University]]'s [[Navlab]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/alv/www/index.html|title=Carnegie Mellon|website=Navlab: The Carnegie Mellon University Navigation Laboratory|publisher=The Robotics Institute|access-date=20 December 2014}}</ref> and ALV<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Kanade |first=Takeo |title=Proceedings of the 1986 ACM fourteenth annual conference on Computer science - CSC '86 |date=February 1986 |chapter=Autonomous land vehicle project at CMU |url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=325197 |pages=71–80 |doi=10.1145/324634.325197|isbn=9780897911771 |s2cid=2308303 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference |last=Wallace |first=Richard |year=1985 |title=First results in robot road-following |url=http://www.ijcai.org/Past%20Proceedings/IJCAI-85-VOL2/PDF/086.pdf |url-status=dead |conference=JCAI'85 Proceedings of the 9th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806093746/http://ijcai.org/Past%20Proceedings/IJCAI-85-VOL2/PDF/086.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2014}}</ref> semi-autonomous projects launched in the 1980s, funded by the United States' [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (DARPA) starting in 1984 and [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Bundeswehr University Munich]]'s [[EUREKA Prometheus Project]] in 1987.<ref name="idsia">{{cite web|url=http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/robotcars.html|title=Prof. Schmidhuber's highlights of robot car history|last=Schmidhuber|first=Jürgen|year=2009|access-date=15 July 2011}}</ref> By 1985, ALV had reached {{convert|31|km/h|abbr=on}}, on two-lane roads. Obstacle avoidance came in 1986, and day and night off-road driving by 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turk |first1=M.A. |last2=Morgenthaler |first2=D.G. |last3=Gremban |first3=K.D. |last4=Marra |first4=M. |date=May 1988 |title=VITS-a vision system for automated land vehicle navigation |journal=IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence|volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=342–361 |doi=10.1109/34.3899 |issn=0162-8828}}</ref> In 1995 Navlab 5 completed the first autonomous US coast-to-coast journey. Traveling from [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania and San Diego, California, 98.2% of the trip was autonomous. It completed the trip at an average speed of {{convert|63.8|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/july/look-ma-no-hands.html|title=Look, Ma, No Hands |publisher= Carnegie Mellon University|access-date=2 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~tjochem/nhaa/navlab5_details.html|title=Navlab 5 Details|website=cs.cmu.edu|access-date=2 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roboticstrends.com/article/back_to_the_future_autonomous_driving_in_1995|title=Back to the Future: Autonomous Driving in 1995|work=Robotics Trends|last=Crowe|first=Steve|access-date=2 March 2017|date=3 April 2015|archive-date=29 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229081126/http://www.roboticstrends.com/article/back_to_the_future_autonomous_driving_in_1995|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/usr/tjochem/www/nhaa/Journal.html|title=NHAA Journal|website=cs.cmu.edu|access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> Until the second [[DARPA Grand Challenge (2005)|DARPA Grand Challenge]] in 2005, automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily funded by DARPA, the US Army, and the US Navy, yielding incremental advances in speeds, driving competence, controls, and sensor systems.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=National Research Council |date=2002|title=Technology Development for Army Unmanned Ground Vehicles|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10592|doi=10.17226/10592|isbn=9780309086202}}</ref>

The US allocated US$650&nbsp;million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Automated Highway System: An Idea Whose Time Has Come {{!}} FHWA |url=https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/summer-1994/automated-highway-system-idea-whose-time-has-come |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120143711/https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/summer-1994/automated-highway-system-idea-whose-time-has-come |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 November 2021 |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=highways.dot.gov}}</ref> which demonstrated automated driving, combining highway-embedded automation with vehicle technology, and cooperative networking between the vehicles and highway infrastructure. The programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-national-automated-highway-system-that-almost-was-63027245/|title=The National Automated Highway System That Almost Was|last=Novak|first=Matt|work=Smithsonian|access-date=8 June 2018}}</ref> Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA, Navlab drove {{convert|4584|km|abbr=on}} across the US in 1995, {{convert|4501|km|abbr=on}} or 98% autonomously.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/slideshow/back_to_the_future_autonomous_driving_in_1995/|title=Back to the Future: Autonomous Driving in 1995|date=3 April 2015|work=Robotics Business Review|access-date=8 June 2018|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140201/https://www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/slideshow/back_to_the_future_autonomous_driving_in_1995/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015, Delphi piloted a Delphi technology-based Audi, over {{convert|5472|km|abbr=on}} through 15 states, 99% autonomously.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/04/delphi-autonomous-car-cross-country/|title=This Is Big: A Robo-Car Just Drove Across the Country|magazine=WIRED|access-date=8 June 2018}}</ref> In 2015, [[Nevada]], Florida, California, [[Virginia]], [[Michigan]], and [[Washington DC]] allowed autonomous car testing on public roads.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.richmond.com/news/article_b1168b67-3b2b-5274-8914-8a3304f2e417.html|title=Self-driving cars to be tested on Virginia highways|last=Ramsey|first=John|date=1 June 2015|work=[[Richmond Times-Dispatch]]|access-date=4 June 2015}}</ref>

From 2016 to 2018, the [[European Commission]] funded development for [[Connected car|connected]] and automated driving through Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT programs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Gereon |date=2018 |chapter=European Roadmaps, Programs, and Projects for Innovation in Connected and Automated Road Transport |editor1= G. Meyer |editor2= S. Beiker |title= Road Vehicle Automation |series=Lecture Notes in Mobility |pages=27–39 |publisher= Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-94896-6_3 |isbn=978-3-319-94895-9 |s2cid=169808153 }}</ref> The Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA) Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in 2019.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=European Commission|date=2019|title=STRIA Roadmap Connected and Automated Transport: Road, Rail and Waterborne|url=https://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/roadmaps/stria_roadmap_2019-connected_and_automated_transport.pdf|access-date=10 November 2019|archive-date=16 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016163601/https://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/roadmaps/stria_roadmap_2019-connected_and_automated_transport.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In November 2017, [[Waymo]] announced testing of autonomous cars without a safety driver.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/7/16615290/waymo-self-driving-safety-driver-chandler-autonomous|title=Waymo is first to put fully self-driving cars on US roads without a safety driver|website=The Verge|first=Andrew J.|last=Hawkins|date=7 November 2017|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> However, an employee was in the car to handle emergencies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://waymo.com/apply/faq/|title=FAQ – Early Rider Program |website=Waymo|access-date=30 November 2018}}</ref>

In March 2018, [[Death of Elaine Herzberg|Elaine Herzberg]] became the first reported pedestrian killed by a self-driving car, an Uber test vehicle with a human backup driver; prosecutors did not charge Uber, while the human driver was sentenced to probation.<ref name=BilleaudAP>{{cite news|last1=Billeaud|first1=Jacques|last2=Snow|first2=Anita|title=The backup driver in the 1st death by a fully autonomous car pleads guilty to endangerment|url=https://apnews.com/article/autonomous-vehicle-death-uber-charge-backup-driver-1c711426a9cf020d3662c47c0dd64e35|work=Associated Press|date=2023-07-28|access-date=2024-09-01}}</ref>

In December 2018, Waymo was the first to commercialize a robotaxi service, in Phoenix, Arizona.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/waymo-launches-nations-first-commercial-self-driving-taxi-service-in-arizona/2018/12/04/8a8cd58a-f7ba-11e8-8c9a-860ce2a8148f_story.html|title=Waymo launches nation's first commercial self-driving taxi service in Arizona|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> In October 2020, Waymo launched a robotaxi service in a ([[Geo-fence|geofenced]]) part of the area.<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 January 2021|title=Waymo's Self-Driving Future Looks Real Now That the Hype Is Fading|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-21/waymo-self-driving-taxis-are-coming-to-more-u-s-cities|access-date=5 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{cite web|last=Ackerman|first=Evan|date=4 March 2021|title=What Full Autonomy Means for the Waymo Driver|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/full-autonomy-waymo-driver|access-date=8 March 2021|website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News}}</ref> The cars were monitored in real-time, and remote engineers intervened to handle exceptional conditions.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hawkins|first=Andrew J.|date=8 October 2020|title=Waymo will allow more people to ride in its fully driverless vehicles in Phoenix|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/10/8/21507814/waymo-driverless-cars-allow-more-customers-phoenix|access-date=5 March 2021|website=The Verge}}</ref><ref name=":11"/>

In March 2019, ahead of [[Roborace]], Robocar set the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness World Record]] as the world's fastest autonomous car. Robocar reached 282.42&nbsp;km/h (175.49&nbsp;mph).<ref>{{cite web|date=17 October 2019|title=Robocar: Watch the world's fastest autonomous car reach its record-breaking 282 km/h|first = Connie |last = Suggitt |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2019/10/robocar-watch-the-worlds-fastest-autonomous-car-reach-its-record-breaking-282-k|access-date=|website=Guinness World Records}}</ref>

In March 2021, [[Honda]] began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 [[Honda Legend|Legend Hybrid EX]] sedans equipped with Level 3 "Traffic Jam Pilot" driving technology, which legally allowed drivers to take their eyes off the road when the car was travelling under {{Convert|30|kph|mph|abbr=out}}.<ref name="Honda-Legend">{{cite web|url=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2021/4210304eng-legend.html |date=4 March 2021 |title=Honda to Begin Sales of Legend with New Honda SENSING Elite |website=[[Honda]] |access-date=6 March 2021 }}</ref><ref name="mainichi">{{cite news |url=https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20210304/p2g/00m/0bu/109000c |date=4 March 2021 |title=Honda to start selling world's 1st level-3 autonomous car for $103K on Fri. |agency=[[Kyodo News]] |access-date=6 March 2021 |archive-date=5 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305144526/https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20210304/p2g/00m/0bu/109000c |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="mlit_2020-11-11">{{cite web|url=https://www.mlit.go.jp/report/press/jidosha08_hh_003888.html |date=11 November 2020 |title=世界初！ 自動運転車（レベル3）の型式指定を行いました |trans-title=The world's first! approval of level-3 type designation for certification |language=ja |website=[[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism|MLIT, Japan]] |access-date=6 March 2021 }}</ref><ref name="car_and_driver_2021-03">{{cite web|last=Beresford|first=Colin|date=4 March 2021|title=Honda Legend Sedan with Level 3 Autonomy Available for Lease in Japan|url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a35729591/honda-legend-level-3-autonomy-leases-japan/|access-date=6 March 2021|website=Car and Driver}}</ref>

In December 2020, [[Waymo]] became the first service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in a part of [[Phoenix, Arizona]]. [[Nuro]] began autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=24 December 2020 |title=Nuro set to be California's first driverless delivery service |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55438969 |access-date=27 December 2020}}</ref> [[DeepRoute.ai]] launched robotaxi service in Shenzhen in July 2021.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=The Robot Report |date=14 September 2021 |title=DeepRoute.ai closes $300M Series B funding round |url=https://www.therobotreport.com/deeproute-ai-closes-300-million-series-b-funding-round/ |website=The Robot Report}}</ref> In December 2021, [[Mercedes-Benz]] received approval for a Level 3 car.<ref name="Mercedes_2021-12-09">{{cite web |date=9 December 2021 |title=Mercedes-Benz self-driving car technology approved for use |url=https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/manufacturer-news/2021/12/09/mercedes-benz-self-driving-car-technology-approved-for-use |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209192401/https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/manufacturer-news/2021/12/09/mercedes-benz-self-driving-car-technology-approved-for-use |archive-date=9 December 2021 |access-date=10 December 2021 |website=Feet News}}</ref> In February 2022, [[Cruise (autonomous vehicle)|Cruise]] became the second service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in [[San Francisco]].<ref name=":0" /> In December 2022, several manufacturers scaled back plans for self-driving technology, including [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] and [[Volkswagen]].<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=28 November 2022 |title=Slow Self-Driving Car Progress Tests Investors' Patience |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/investors-are-losing-patience-with-slow-pace-of-driverless-cars-11669576382 |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref> In 2023, Cruise suspended its robotaxi service.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Shepardson |first1=David |last2=Klayman |first2=Ben |date=November 14, 2023 |title=GM's Cruise suspends supervised and manual car trips, expands probes |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/gms-cruise-suspends-supervised-manual-car-trips-expands-probes-2023-11-15/}}</ref> Nuro was approved for Level 4 in Palo Alto in August, 2023.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=nuro/status/1688965912165265408 |url=https://twitter.com/nuro/status/1688965912165265408 |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=Twitter |language=en}}</ref>

{{As of|2023|August}}, vehicles operating at Level 3 and above were an insignificant [[Factor market|market factor]];{{Citation needed|reason=This is a significant claim that needs evidence|date=February 2024}} as of early 2024, Honda leases a Level 3 car in Japan, and Mercedes sells two Level 3 cars in Germany, California and Nevada.<ref>{{Cite web |last=AUTOCRYPT |date=2023-01-13 |title=The State of Level 3 Autonomous Driving in 2023 |url=https://autocrypt.io/the-state-of-level-3-autonomous-driving-in-2023/ |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=AUTOCRYPT |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Tucker |first=Sean |date=2024-01-09 |title=Self-Driving Cars: Everything You Need To Know |url=https://www.kbb.com/car-advice/self-driving-cars/ |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=Kelley Blue Book |language=en-US}}</ref> BMW also sells its Level 3 Personal Pilot in Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carlson |first=Cody |date=2023-11-14 |title=BMW's $6,000 'Personal Pilot' Level 3 self-driving system is fast approaching |url=https://www.the-express.com/lifestyle/cars/118336/bmw-confirms-arrival-personal-pilot-self-driving |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=Daily Express US |language=en}}</ref>

== Definitions ==

Organizations such as [[SAE International|SAE]] have proposed terminology standards. However, most terms have no standard definition and are employed variously by vendors and others. Proposals to adopt aviation automation terminology for cars have not prevailed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Umar Zakir Abdul |first=Hamid |display-authors=etal |date=2021 |title=Adopting Aviation Safety Knowledge into the Discussions of Safe Implementation of Connected and Autonomous Road Vehicles |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350669647 |journal=SAE Technical Papers (SAE WCX Digital Summit) |issue=2021–01–0074 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref>

Names such as AutonoDrive, PilotAssist, Full-Self Driving or DrivePilot are used even though the products offer an assortment of features that may not match the names.<ref name=":15">{{cite web |last=Morris |first=David |date=8 November 2020 |title=What's in a name? For Tesla's Full Self Driving, it may be danger |url=https://fortune.com/2020/11/08/tesla-full-self-driving-autonomous-vehicle-safety/ |access-date=8 March 2021 |website=Fortune}}</ref> Despite offering a system dubbed [[Tesla Autopilot|"Full Self-Driving"]], [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] stated that its system did not autonomously handle all driving tasks.<ref>{{cite news |last=Boudette |first=Neal E. |date=23 March 2021 |title=Tesla's Autopilot Technology Faces Fresh Scrutiny |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/23/business/teslas-autopilot-safety-investigations.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/23/business/teslas-autopilot-safety-investigations.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |access-date=15 June 2021 |newspaper=The New York Times}} 
Tesla vehicles remain at Level 2 automation and are therefore not "fully self-driving" and require active driver supervision.
{{cbignore}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, a fully self-driving car is defined as a car so registered, rather than one that supports a specific feature set.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cellan-Jones |first=Rory |date=12 June 2018 |title=Insurers warning on "autonomous" cars |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-44439523 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> The [[Association of British Insurers]] claimed that the usage of the word ''autonomous'' in marketing was dangerous because car ads make motorists think "autonomous" and "autopilot" imply that the driver can rely on the car to control itself, even though they do not.

=== Automated driving system ===

SAE identified 6 levels for driving automation from level 0 to level 5.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021-07-14 |title=An Integrated Approach for Predicting Consumer Acceptance of Self-Driving Vehicles in the United States |url=https://articlegateway.com/index.php/JMDC/article/view/4330 |journal=Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.33423/jmdc.v15i2.4330 |issn=2155-2843}}</ref> An [[Automated driving system|ADS]] is an SAE J3016 level 3 or higher system.

=== Advanced driver assistance system ===
{{Main|Advanced driver-assistance system}}
An [[Advanced driver-assistance system|ADAS]] is a system that automates specific driving features, such as Forward Collision Warning (FCW), Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB), Lane Departure Warning (LDW), Lane Keeping Assistance (LKA) or Blind Spot Warning (BSW).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aleksa |first1=Michael |last2=Schaub |first2=Andrea |last3=Erdelean |first3=Isabela |last4=Wittmann |first4=Stephan |last5=Soteropoulos |first5=Aggelos |last6=Fürdös |first6=Alexander |date=2024-06-27 |title=Impact analysis of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) regarding road safety – computing reduction potentials |journal=European Transport Research Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=39 |doi=10.1186/s12544-024-00654-0 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ETRR...16...39A |issn=1866-8887}}</ref> An ADAS requires a human driver to handle tasks that the ADAS does not support.

=== Autonomy versus automation ===
Autonomy implies that an automation system is under the control of the vehicle rather than a driver. [[Automation]] is function-specific, handling issues such as speed control, but leaves broader decision-making to the driver.<ref name="antsaklis1991introduction">{{cite journal |last1=Antsaklis |first1=Panos J. |last2=Passino |first2=Kevin M. |last3=Wang |first3=S.J. |year=1991 |title=An Introduction to Autonomous Control Systems |url=http://neuron-ai.tuke.sk/hudecm/PDF_PAPERS/Intro-Aut-Control.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=IEEE Control Systems Magazine |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=5–13 |citeseerx=10.1.1.840.976 |doi=10.1109/37.88585 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516202116/http://neuron-ai.tuke.sk/hudecm/PDF_PAPERS/Intro-Aut-Control.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2017 |access-date=21 January 2019}}</ref>

[[Euro NCAP]] defined autonomous as "the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euroncap.com/en/vehicle-safety/the-rewards-explained/autonomous-emergency-braking/|title=Autonomous Emergency Braking – Euro NCAP|website=euroncap.com}}</ref>

In Europe, the words ''automated'' and ''autonomous'' can be used together. For instance, Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 supplied:<ref name="Regulation_eU_2019_2144">Regulation (EU) 2019/2144</ref>
* "automated vehicle" means a vehicle that can move without continuous driver supervision, but that driver intervention is still expected or required in the operational design domains (ODD);<ref name="Regulation_eU_2019_2144" />
* "fully automated vehicle" means a vehicle that can move entirely without driver supervision;<ref name="Regulation_eU_2019_2144" />

===Cooperative system===

A remote driver is a driver that operates a vehicle at a distance, using a video and data connection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Yang |last2=Lee |first2=Sanghwan |date=16 June 2022 |title=Remote Driving Control With Real-Time Video Streaming Over Wireless Networks: Design and Evaluation |journal=IEEE Access|volume=10 |pages=64920–64932 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3183758 |bibcode=2022IEEEA..1064920Y |doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to [[#SAE classification|SAE J3016]], {{blockquote|Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions independently and self-sufficiently, but if they depend on communication and/or cooperation with outside entities, they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous.}}

=== Operational design domain ===
{{Excerpt|Operational design domain|paragraphs=1-2}}Vendors have taken a variety of approaches to the self-driving problem. Tesla's approach is to allow their "full self-driving" (FSD) system to be used in all ODDs as a Level 2 (hands/on, eyes/on) ADAS.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lambert |first=Fred |date=March 8, 2023 |title=Tesla pushes new Full Self-Driving Beta v11 update as it slowly expands rollout |url=https://electrek.co/2023/03/08/tesla-full-self-driving-beta-v11-update-slowly-expands-rollout/ |work=electrek.co}}</ref> Waymo picked specific ODDs (city streets in Phoenix and San Francisco) for their Level 5 robotaxi service.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ohnsman |first=Alan |title=Waymo's Robotaxis Are Hitting The Highway, A First For Self-Driving Cars |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanohnsman/2024/01/08/waymos-robotaxis-are-hitting-the-highway-a-first-for-self-driving-cars/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> Mercedes Benz offers Level 3 service in Las Vegas in highway traffic jams at speeds up to {{Convert|40|mph}}.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Golson |first=Daniel |date=2023-09-27 |title=We put our blind faith in Mercedes-Benz's first-of-its-kind autonomous Drive Pilot feature |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/27/23892154/mercedes-benz-drive-pilot-autonomous-level-3-test |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> Mobileye's SuperVision system offers hands-off/eyes-on driving on all road types at speeds up to {{Convert|130|kph}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobileye SuperVision™ {{!}} The Bridge from ADAS to Consumer AVs |url=https://www.mobileye.com/solutions/super-vision/ |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=Mobileye |language=en}}</ref> GM's hands-free Super Cruise operates on specific roads in specific conditions, stopping or returning control to the driver when ODD changes. In 2024 the company announced plans to expand road coverage from 400,000 miles to 750,000 miles.<ref>{{Cite news |last=HUNT |first=RHIAN |date=February 15, 2024 |title=GM Adding 350,000 Miles Of Super Cruise Road Coverage |url=https://gmauthority.com/blog/2024/02/gm-adding-350000-miles-of-super-cruise-road-coverage/ |work=GM Authority}}</ref> Ford's BlueCruise hands-off system operates on 130,000 miles of US divided highways.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wardlaw |first=Christian |date=April 20, 2021 |title=What is Ford BlueCruise, and How Does It Work? |url=https://www.jdpower.com/cars/shopping-guides/what-is-ford-bluecruise-and-how-does-it-work |website=jdpower.com}}</ref>

=== Self-driving ===
The [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] defined self-driving as "cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or 'driverless' cars, they combine sensors and software to control, navigate, and drive the vehicle."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/how-self-driving-cars-work|title=Self-Driving Cars Explained|website=Union of Concerned Scientists}}</ref>

The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as "driving itself" if the vehicle is "not being controlled, and does not need to be monitored, by an individual".<ref>{{cite web|title=Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 becomes law|url=https://www.penningtonslaw.com/news-publications/latest-news/2018/automated-and-electric-vehicles-act-2018-becomes-law|access-date=24 March 2021|website=penningtonslaw.com}}</ref>

Another British government definition stated, "Self-driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/self-driving-vehicles-listed-for-use-in-great-britain |title=Self-driving vehicles listed for use in Great Britain |publisher=GOV.UK |date=20 April 2022 |accessdate=19 July 2022}}</ref>

=== British definitions ===
In British English, the word automated alone has several meanings, such as in the sentence: "Thatcham also found that the ''automated'' lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety, going on to say they cannot, therefore, be classed as 'automated driving', preferring 'assisted driving'".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hancocks |first1=Simon |date=26 October 2020 |title=The ABI and Thatcham warn against automated driving plans |url=https://www.visordown.com/news/industry/abi-and-thatcham-warn-against-automated-driving-plans |website=Visordown}}</ref> The first occurrence of the "automated" word refers to an Unece automated system, while the second refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle. British law interprets the meaning of "automated vehicle" based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle "driving itself" and an insured vehicle.<ref>Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018</ref>

In November 2023 the British Government introduced the Automated Vehicles Bill. It proposed definitions for related terms:<ref name="52908-3984">{{Cite web|url=https://bills.parliament.uk/publications/52908/documents/3984|title=Automated Vehicle Bill}}</ref>
* Self-driving: "A vehicle “satisfies the self-driving test” if it is designed or adapted with the intention that a feature of the vehicle will allow it to travel autonomously, and it is capable of doing so, by means of that feature, safely and legally."
* Autonomy: A vehicle travels "autonomously" if it is controlled by the vehicle, and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are monitored by a person who can intervene.
* Control: control of vehicle motion.
* Safe: a vehicle that conforms to an acceptably safe standard.
* Legal: a vehicle that offers an acceptably low risk of committing a traffic infraction.

=== SAE classification{{anchor|automation-levels}} ===
[[File:Tesla Autopilot Engaged in Model X.jpg|thumb|[[Tesla Autopilot]] is classified as an SAE Level 2 system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tesla.com/support/autopilot |title=Support – Autopilot |work=[[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] |date=13 February 2019 |access-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410153216/https://www.tesla.com/support/autopilot |archive-date=10 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a35785277/tesla-fsd-california-self-driving/ |author=Roberto Baldwin |date=9 March 2021 |title=Tesla Tells California DMV that FSD Is Not Capable of Autonomous Driving |website=[[Car and Driver]] }}</ref>]]

A six-level classification system – ranging from fully manual to fully automated – was published in 2014 by [[SAE International]] as J3016, ''Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems''; the details are revised occasionally.<ref name="SAE-J3016">{{cite web |author=SAE International |date=30 April 2021 |title=Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles (SAE J3016) |url=https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_202104/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220101755/https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_202104/ |archive-date=20 December 2021 |access-date=25 December 2021}}</ref> This classification is based on the role of the driver, rather than the vehicle's capabilities, although these are related. After SAE updated its classification in 2016, (J3016_201609),<ref>SAE International</ref> the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) adopted the SAE standard.<ref>{{cite web|date=September 2016 |title=Federal Automated Vehicles Policy |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/federal_automated_vehicles_policy.pdf |page=9 |website=[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration|NHTSA]], U.S. |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 February 2018 |title=JASO TP 18004: 自動車用運転自動化システムのレベル分類及び定義 |trans-title=JASO TP 18004: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems |url=https://www.jsae.or.jp/08std/data/DrivingAutomation/jaso_tp18004-18.pdf |website=[[Japanese Automotive Standards Organization|JASO]], Japan |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201121753/https://www.jsae.or.jp/08std/data/DrivingAutomation/jaso_tp18004-18.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The classification is a topic of debate, with various revisions proposed.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Steckhan |first1=Lorenz |title=Beyond SAE J3016: New Design Spaces for Human-Centered Driving Automation |date=2022 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-04987-3_28 |work=HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems |volume=13335 |pages=416–434 |editor-last=Krömker |editor-first=Heidi |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-04987-3_28 |isbn=978-3-031-04986-6 |access-date=2023-01-24 |last2=Spiessl |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Quetschlich |first3=Nils |last4=Bengler |first4=Klaus|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Inagaki |first1=Toshiyuki |last2=Sheridan |first2=Thomas B. |date=November 2019 |title=A critique of the SAE conditional driving automation definition, and analyses of options for improvement |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10111-018-0471-5 |journal=Cognition, Technology & Work |language=en |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=569–578 |doi=10.1007/s10111-018-0471-5 |s2cid=254144879 |issn=1435-5558|hdl=1721.1/116231 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==== Classifications ====
A "driving mode", aka driving [[Scenario (vehicular automation)|scenario]], combines an ODD with matched driving requirements (e.g., expressway merging, traffic jam).<ref name=":5" /><ref name="SAE_definitions">{{cite web|url=https://cdn.oemoffhighway.com/files/base/acbm/ooh/document/2016/03/automated_driving.pdf |title=Automated Driving – Levels of Driving Automation are Defined in New SAE International Standard J3016 |work=[[SAE International]] |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701034327/https://cdn.oemoffhighway.com/files/base/acbm/ooh/document/2016/03/automated_driving.pdf |archive-date=1 July 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Cars may switch levels in accord with the driving mode.

Above Level 1, level differences are related to how responsibility for safe movement is divided/shared between ADAS and driver rather than specific driving features. 
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+J3016 Automation Levels<ref name="SAE_definitions" />
|-
! rowspan=2 | Level
! rowspan=2 | Name
! colspan="2"rowspan=2 | Narrative
! colspan=3 | Responsibility for:
! rowspan=2 |  Mode coverage
|-
! Vehicle direction & speed !! Monitoring environment !! Fallback
|-style="background:#dff;"
! style="font-size:150%;background:#dff;" | {{vanchor|Level 0|text=0}}
| No Automation || colspan="2" |Full-time performance by the driver of all aspects of driving, even when "enhanced by warning or intervention systems" || Driver || rowspan="3" |Driver || rowspan="4" |Driver || n/a
|-style="background:#bff;"
! style="font-size:150%;background:#bff;" | {{vanchor|Level 1|text=1}}
| Driver Assistance || Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of either steering or speed || rowspan="2" | ADAS uses information about the driving environment; driver is expected to perform all other driving tasks. || Driver and system || rowspan="3" |Some
|-style="background:#9ff;"
! style="font-size:150%;background:#9ff;" | {{vanchor|Level 2|text=2}}
| Partial Automation || Driving mode-specific execution by one or more ADAS for both steering and speed || rowspan="4" style="background:#dfd;" |System
|-style="background:#dfd;"
! style="font-size:150%;background:#dfd;" | {{vanchor|Level 3|text=3}}
| Conditional Automation || rowspan="3" |Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of all aspects of driving || Driver must appropriately respond to a request to intervene. || rowspan="3" |System
|-style="background:#bfb;"
! style="font-size:150%;background:#bfb;" | {{vanchor|Level 4|text=4}}
| High Automation || If a driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene, the car can stop safely.|| rowspan="2" | System || Many
|-style="background:#9f9;"
! style="font-size:150%;background:#9f9;" | {{vanchor|Level 5|text=5}}
| Full Automation || System controls the vehicle under all conditions and circumstances. || All
|}
SAE Automation Levels have been criticized{{by whom|date=September 2024}} for their technological focus. It has been argued that the structure of the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better, which may not be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stayton |first1=E. |last2=Stilgoe |first2=J. |date=September 2020 |title=It's Time to Rethink Levels of Automation for Self-Driving Vehicles [Opinion] |journal=IEEE Technology and Society Magazine |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=13–19 |doi=10.1109/MTS.2020.3012315 |bibcode=2020ITSMg..39c..13S |issn=1937-416X |doi-access=free}}</ref> SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure<ref>{{cite web |date=6 July 2020 |title=Preparing the UK's motorways for self-driving vehicles: New £1m research project announced in partnership with Highways England |url=https://www.lboro.ac.uk/news-events/news/2020/july/preparing-motorways-for-autonomous-vehicles/ |access-date=13 April 2021 |website=Loughborough University}}</ref> and road user behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cavoli |first1=Clemence |last2=Phillips |first2=Brian |year=2017 |others=Tom Cohen |title=Social and behavioural questions associated with Automated Vehicles A Literature Review. |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/transport/sites/transport/files/social-and-behavioural-literature-review.pdf |journal=UCL Transport Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Parkin |first1=John |last2=Clark |first2=Benjamin |last3=Clayton |first3=William |last4=Ricci |first4=Miriam |last5=Parkhurst |first5=Graham |date=27 October 2017 |title=Autonomous vehicle interactions in the urban street environment: a research agenda |journal=Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Municipal Engineer |volume=171 |issue=1 |pages=15–25 |doi=10.1680/jmuen.16.00062 |issn=0965-0903 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Mobileye System ===
[[File:Mobileye Taxonomy for Consumer Autonomous Vehicles.png|thumb]]
[[Mobileye]] CEO [[Amnon Shashua]] and CTO Shai Shalev-Shwartz proposed an alternative taxonomy for autonomous driving systems, claiming that a more consumer-friendly approach was needed. Its categories reflect the amount of driver engagement that is required.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hagman |first=Brian |date=2023-02-16 |title=Mobileye Proposes New Taxonomy and Requirements for Consumer Autonomous Vehicles to Ensure Clarity, Safety, and Scalability |url=https://selfdrivenews.com/mobileye-proposes-new-taxonomy-and-requirements-for-consumer-autonomous-vehicles-to-ensure-clarity-safety-and-scalability/ |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=Self Drive News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last1=Shashua |first1=Amnon |last2=Shalev-Shwartz |first2=Shai |date=February 5, 2023 |title=Defining a New Taxonomy for Consumer Autonomous Vehicles |work=Mobileye |url=https://www.mobileye.com/opinion/defining-a-new-taxonomy-for-consumer-autonomous-vehicles/}}</ref> Some vehicle makers have informally adopted some of the terminology involved, while not formally committing to it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ford BlueCruise {{!}} Consumer Reports Top-Rated Active Driving Assistance System {{!}} Ford.com |url=https://www.ford.com/technology/bluecruise/ |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Ford Motor Company |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hands-Free, Eyes On |url=https://www.gm.com/commitments/av-safe-deployment |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.gm.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Level 2 of autonomous driving - "EYES ON / HANDS OFF" |url=https://www.valeo.com/en/level-2-autonomous-driving-eyes-on-hands-off/ |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Valeo |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dow |first=Jameson |date=September 27, 2023 |title=Hands-off with the first true hands-free car in the US, and it's not Tesla |url=https://electrek.co/2023/09/27/hands-off-with-the-first-true-hands-free-car-in-the-us-and-its-not-tesla/ |access-date=February 8, 2024 |work=Electrek.co}}</ref>

==== Eyes-on/hands-on ====
The first level, hands-on/eyes-on, implies that the driver is fully engaged in operating the vehicle, but is supervised by the system, which intervenes according to the features it supports (e.g., adaptive cruise control, automatic emergency braking). The driver is entirely responsible, with hands on the wheel and eyes on the road.<ref name=":02" />

==== Eyes-on/hands-off ====
Eyes-on/hands-off allows the driver to let go of the wheel. The system drives, the driver monitors, and remains prepared to resume control as needed.<ref name=":02" />

==== Eyes-off/hands-off ====
Eyes-off/hands-off means that the driver can stop monitoring the system, leaving the system in full control. Eyes-off requires that no errors be reproducible (not triggered by exotic transitory conditions) or frequent, that speeds are contextually appropriate (e.g., 80&nbsp;mph on limited-access roads), and that the system handles typical maneuvers (e.g., getting cut off by another vehicle). The automation level could vary according to the road (e.g., eyes-off on freeways, eyes-on on side streets).<ref name=":02" />

==== No driver ====
The highest level does not require a human driver in the car: monitoring is done either remotely (telepresence) or not at all.<ref name=":02" />

==== Safety ====
A critical requirement for the higher two levels is that the vehicle be able to conduct a Minimum Risk Maneuver and stop safely out of traffic without driver intervention.<ref name=":02" />

== Technology ==
{{Main|Vehicular automation}}

=== Architecture ===
The perception system processes visual and audio data from outside and inside the car to create a local model of the vehicle, the road, traffic, traffic controls and other observable objects, and their relative motion. The [[control system]] then takes actions to move the vehicle, considering the local model, road map, and driving regulations.<ref name="tro">{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=J. |last2=Bhowmick |first2=P. |last3=Jang |first3=I. |last4=Arvin |first4=F. |last5=Lanzon |first5=A. |year=2021 |title=A Decentralized Cluster Formation Containment Framework for Multirobot Systems |journal=IEEE Transactions on Robotics |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=1936–1955 |doi=10.1109/TRO.2021.3071615 |bibcode=2021ITRob..37.1936H }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=European Roadmap Smart Systems for Automated Driving |url=http://www.smart-systems-integration.org/public/documents/publications/EPoSS%20Roadmap_Smart%20Systems%20for%20Automated%20Driving_2015_V1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212024339/http://www.smart-systems-integration.org/public/documents/publications/EPoSS%20Roadmap_Smart%20Systems%20for%20Automated%20Driving_2015_V1.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 |work=[[European Technology Platform on Smart Systems Integration|EPoSS]]}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Lim |first1=THazel Si Min |last2=Taeihagh |first2=Araz |year=2019 |title=Algorithmic Decision-Making in AVs: Understanding Ethical and Technical Concerns for Smart Cities |journal=Sustainability |volume=11 |issue=20 |page=5791 |arxiv=1910.13122 |bibcode=2019arXiv191013122L |doi=10.3390/su11205791 |s2cid=204951009 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="MBK">{{Cite journal |last=Matzliach |first=Barouch |year=2022 |title=Detection of Static and Mobile Targets by an Autonomous Agent with Deep Q-Learning Abilities |journal=Entropy |publisher=Entropy, 2022, 24, 1168 |volume=24 |issue=8 |page=1168 |bibcode=2022Entrp..24.1168M |doi=10.3390/e24081168 |pmc=9407070 |pmid=36010832 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Several classifications have been proposed to describe ADAS technology. One proposal is to adopt these categories: navigation, path planning, perception, and car control.<ref name="Zhao_2018">{{Cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Jianfeng|last2=Liang|first2=Bodong|last3=Chen|first3=Qiuxia|date=2 January 2018|title=The key technology toward the self-driving car|journal=International Journal of Intelligent Unmanned Systems|volume=6|issue=1|pages=2–20|doi=10.1108/IJIUS-08-2017-0008|issn=2049-6427|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Navigation ===
{{Main|Hybrid navigation}}
Navigation involves the use of maps to define a path between origin and destination. Hybrid navigation is the use of multiple [[navigation system]]s. Some systems use basic maps, relying on perception to deal with anomalies. Such a map understands which roads lead to which others, whether a road is a freeway, a highway, are one-way, etc. Other systems require highly detailed maps, including lane maps, obstacles, traffic controls, etc.

==== Perception ====
ACs need to be able to perceive the world around them. Supporting technologies include combinations of cameras, [[Lidar|LiDAR]], [[radar]], audio, and [[ultrasound]],<ref name="2020_tech_report">{{cite web |date=20 February 2020 |title=2020 Autonomous Vehicle Technology Report |url=https://www.wevolver.com/article/2020.autonomous.vehicle.technology.report |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=Wevolver}}</ref> [[GPS]], and [[Inertial measurement unit|inertial measurement]].<ref name="arxiv">{{cite arXiv|last1=Huval|first1=Brody|last2=Wang|first2=Tao|last3=Tandon|first3=Sameep|last4=Kiske|first4=Jeff|last5=Song|first5=Will|last6=Pazhayampallil|first6=Joel|title=An Empirical Evaluation of Deep Learning on Highway Driving|eprint=1504.01716|class=cs.RO|year=2015}}</ref><ref name="IEEE2">{{Cite journal| title=An Introduction to Inertial and Visual Sensing |first1=Peter |last1=Corke |first2=Jorge |last2=Lobo |first3=Jorge |last3=Dias |date= 1 June 2007 | volume= 26|issue=6 |journal=The International Journal of Robotics Research|doi=10.1177/0278364907079279 |pages=519–535|citeseerx=10.1.1.93.5523|s2cid=206499861 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahangar |first1=M. Nadeem |last2=Ahmed |first2=Qasim Z. |last3=Khan |first3=Fahd A. |last4=Hafeez |first4=Maryam |date=January 2021 |title=A Survey of Autonomous Vehicles: Enabling Communication Technologies and Challenges |journal=Sensors |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=706 |doi=10.3390/s21030706 |doi-access=free |pmid=33494191 |pmc=7864337 |bibcode=2021Senso..21..706A |issn=1424-8220}}</ref> [[Deep neural networks]] are used to analyse inputs from these sensors to detect and identify objects and their trajectories.<ref name="li23less">{{cite conference |last1=Li |first1=Li |last2=Shum |first2=Hubert P. H. |last3=Breckon |first3=Toby P. |title=2023 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) |chapter=Less is More: Reducing Task and Model Complexity for 3D Point Cloud Semantic Segmentation |date=2023 |pages=9361–9371 |doi=10.1109/CVPR52729.2023.00903 |publisher=IEEE/CVF |arxiv=2303.11203 |isbn=979-8-3503-0129-8 }}</ref> Some systems use [[Bayes' theorem|Bayesian]] [[simultaneous localization and mapping]] (SLAM) algorithms. Another technique is detection and tracking of other moving objects (DATMO), used to handle potential obstacles.<ref name="IEEE1">{{Cite journal|journal= IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine |title=Simultaneous localization and mapping | volume= 13|issue= 2 |pages= 99–110 |date=5 June 2006 |issn=1070-9932 |doi=10.1109/mra.2006.1638022 | last1 = Durrant-Whyte | first1 = H. | last2 = Bailey | first2 = T.|citeseerx=10.1.1.135.9810 |s2cid=8061430 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329873195|title=A Brief Survey on SLAM Methods in Autonomous Vehicle}}</ref> Other systems use roadside [[real-time locating system]] (RTLS) technologies to aid localization. Tesla's "vision only" system uses eight cameras, without LIDAR or radar, to create its bird's-eye view of the environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tesla Vision Update: Replacing Ultrasonic Sensors with Tesla Vision {{!}} Tesla Support |url=https://www.tesla.com/support/transitioning-tesla-vision |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=Tesla |language=en}}</ref>

==== Path planning ====
[[Motion planning|Path planning]] finds a sequence of segments that a vehicle can use to move from origin to destination. Techniques used for path planning include graph-based search and variational-based optimization techniques. Graph-based techniques can make harder decisions such as how to pass another vehicle/obstacle. Variational-based optimization techniques require more stringent restrictions on the vehicle's path to prevent collisions.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Althoff |first1=Matthias |last2=Sontges |first2=Sebastian |date=June 2017 |title=Computing possible driving corridors for automated vehicles |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318805881}}</ref> The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a [[voronoi diagram]], an [[occupancy grid mapping]], or a driving corridor algorithm. The latter allows the vehicle to locate and drive within open space that is bounded by lanes or barriers.<ref>{{cite web |author=Deepshikha Shukla |date=16 August 2019 |title=Design Considerations For Autonomous Vehicles |url=https://www.electronicsforu.com/market-verticals/automotive/design-considerations-autonomous-vehicles |access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref>

==== Maps ====
Maps are necessary for navigation. Map sophistication varies from simple graphs that show which roads connect to each other, with details such as one-way vs two-way, to those that are highly detailed, with information about lanes, traffic controls, roadworks, and more.<ref name="2020_tech_report" /> Researchers at the MIT[[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] (CSAIL) developed a system called MapLite, which allows self-driving cars to drive with simple maps. The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle, a "sparse topological map" such as [[OpenStreetMap]] (which has only 2D road features), with sensors that observe road conditions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Connor-Simons |first1=Adam |last2=Gordon |first2=Rachel |date=7 May 2018 |title=Self-driving cars for country roads: Today's automated vehicles require hand-labeled 3-D maps, but CSAIL's MapLite system enables navigation with just GPS and sensors. |url=https://news.mit.edu/2018/self-driving-cars-for-country-roads-mit-csail-0507 |access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> One issue with highly detailed maps is updating them as the world changes. Vehicles that can operate with less-detailed maps do not require frequent updates or geo-fencing.

==== Sensors ====
Sensors are necessary for the vehicle to properly respond to the driving environment. Sensor types include cameras, [[LiDAR]], [[ultrasound]], and [[radar]]. Control systems typically [[sensor fusion|combine data from multiple sensors]].<ref>{{cite web |date=14 December 2017 |title=How Self-Driving Cars Work |work=Medium |url=https://medium.com/udacity/how-self-driving-cars-work-f77c49dca47e |access-date=18 April 2018 |last1=Silver |first1=David }}</ref> Multiple sensors can provide a more complete view of the surroundings and can be used to cross-check each other to correct errors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yeong |first1=De Jong |last2=Velasco-Hernandez |first2=Gustavo |last3=Barry |first3=John |last4=Walsh |first4=Joseph |date=2021 |title=Sensor and Sensor Fusion Technology in Autonomous Vehicles: A Review |journal=Sensors |language=en |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=2140 |bibcode=2021Senso..21.2140Y |doi=10.3390/s21062140 |issn=1424-8220 |pmc=8003231 |pmid=33803889 |doi-access=free}}</ref> For example, radar can image a scene in, e.g., a nighttime snowstorm, that defeats cameras and LiDAR, albeit at reduced precision. After experimenting with radar and ultrasound, Tesla adopted a vision-only approach, asserting that humans drive using only vision, and that cars should be able to do the same, while citing the lower cost of cameras versus other sensor types.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tara |first=Roopinder |date=October 2, 2023 |title=Now Revealed: Why Teslas Have Only Camera-Based Vision |url=https://www.engineering.com/story/now-revealed-why-teslas-have-only-camera-based-vision |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Engineering.com}}</ref> By contrast, Waymo makes use of the higher resolution of LiDAR sensors and cites the declining cost of that technology.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 21, 2022 |title=Informing smarter lidar solutions for the future |url=https://waymo.com/blog/2022/09/informing-smarter-lidar-solutions- |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=Waymo |language=en}}</ref>

=== Drive by wire ===
{{main|Drive by wire}}
Drive by wire is the use of electrical or electro-mechanical systems for performing vehicle functions such as steering or speed control that are traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages.

=== Driver monitoring ===
{{main|Driver monitoring system}}
Driver monitoring is used to assess the driver's attention and alertness. Techniques in use include eye monitoring, and requiring the driver to maintain torque on the steering wheel.<ref>{{cite web|author=Alain Dunoyer |title=Why driver monitoring will be critical to next-generation autonomous vehicles |url=https://www.sbdautomotive.com/en/news-insight-driver-monitoring |website=SBD Automotive |date=27 January 2022 |access-date=13 May 2022 }}</ref> It attempts to understand driver status and identify dangerous driving behaviors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How road rage really affects your driving -- and the self-driving cars of the future |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/04/230411150507.htm |access-date=2023-11-25 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref>

=== Vehicle communication ===
{{main|Vehicular communication systems}}
Vehicles can potentially benefit from communicating with others to share information about traffic, road obstacles, to receive map and software updates, etc.<ref>{{cite web|date=11 April 2019 |author=Mike Beevor |title=Driving autonomous vehicles forward with intelligent infrastructure |url=https://www.smartcitiesworld.net/opinions/opinions/driving-autonomous-vehicles-forward-with-intelligent-infrastructure 
|website=Smart Cities World |access-date=27 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=October 2010 |title=Frequency of Target Crashes for IntelliDrive Safety Systems |url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Crash%20Avoidance/Technical%20Publications/2010/811381.pdf |website=[[US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration|NHTSA]] |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405114215/https://www.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Crash%20Avoidance/Technical%20Publications/2010/811381.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="2020_tech_report"/>

[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/TC 22 specifies in-vehicle transport information and control systems,<ref>{{cite web |date=2 November 2016 |title=ISO/TC 22: Road vehicles |url=https://www.iso.org/committee/46706.html |access-date=11 May 2022 |website=[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]}}</ref> while ISO/TC 204 specifies information, communication and control systems in surface transport.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2021 |title=ISO/TC 204: Intelligent transport systems |url=https://www.iso.org/committee/54706.html |access-date=11 May 2022 |website=[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]}}</ref> International standards have been developed for ADAS functions, connectivity, human interaction, in-vehicle systems, management/engineering, dynamic map and positioning, privacy and security.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 June 2019 |title=Standards Collection |url=https://www.connectedautomateddriving.eu/standards/standards-collection/ |access-date=23 November 2021 |website=connected automated driving.eu}}</ref>

Rather than communicating among vehicles, they can communicate with road-based systems to receive similar information.

=== Software update ===
{{See also|Over-the-air programming}}
Software controls the vehicle, and can provide entertainment and other services. Over-the-air updates can deliver bug fixes and additional features over the internet. Software updates are one way to accomplish recalls that in the past required a visit to a service center. In March 2021, the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] regulation on software update and software update management systems was published.<ref name="unece156">{{cite web|date=4 March 2021 |title=UN Regulation No. 156 – Software update and software update management system |url=https://unece.org/transport/documents/2021/03/standards/un-regulation-no-156-software-update-and-software-update |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] |access-date=20 March 2022 }}</ref>

=== Safety model ===
A safety model is software that attempts to formalize rules that ensure that ACs operate safely.<ref>{{cite arXiv|year=2017 |first1= Shai |last1=Shalev-Shwartz |first2= Shaked |last2=Shammah |first3= Amnon |last3=Shashua |title=On a Formal Model of Safe and Scalable Self-driving Cars |class= cs.RO |eprint= 1708.06374 }}</ref>

IEEE is attempting to forge a standard for safety models as "IEEE P2846: A Formal Model for Safety Considerations in Automated Vehicle Decision Making".<ref>{{cite web|title=WG: VT/ITS/AV Decision Making |url=https://sagroups.ieee.org/2846/ |website=[[IEEE Standards Association]] |access-date= 18 July 2022}}</ref> In 2022, a research group at [[National Institute of Informatics]] (NII, Japan) enhanced Mobileye's Reliable Safety System as "Goal-Aware RSS" to enable RSS rules to deal with complex scenarios via program logic.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Ichiro |last1= Hasuo |first2= Clovis |last2=Eberhart |first3=James |last3=Haydon |first4=Jérémy |last4=Dubut |first5=Brandon |last5=Bohrer |first6=Tsutomu |last6=Kobayashi |first7= Sasinee |last7=Pruekprasert |first8= Xiao-Yi |last8=Zhang |first9= Erik |last9=Andre Pallas |first10=Akihisa |last10=Yamada |first11= Kohei |last11=Suenaga |first12= Fuyuki |last12=Ishikawa |first13= Kenji |last13=Kamijo |first14= Yoshiyuki |last14=Shinya |first15= Takamasa |last15=Suetomi |date=5 July 2022 |title=Goal-Aware RSS for Complex Scenarios Via Program Logic |journal=IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Vehicles |volume= 8 |issue= 4 |language=en |pages=3040–3072 |doi=10.1109/TIV.2022.3169762 |arxiv= 2207.02387 |s2cid= 250311612 }}</ref>

=== Notification ===
The US has standardized the use of turquoise lights to inform other drivers that a vehicle is driving autonomously. It will be used in the 2026 Mercedes-Benz EQS and S-Class sedans with Drive Pilot, an SAE Level 3 driving system.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

As of 2023, the Turquoise light had not been standardized by the P.R.C or the UN-ECE.<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web |last=Tucker |first=Sean |date=2023-12-19 |title=Thanks to Mercedes, Turquoise Lights Mean Self-Driving |url=https://www.kbb.com/car-news/thanks-to-mercedes-turquoise-lights-mean-self-driving/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=Kelley Blue Book |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Artificial Intelligence ===
[[Artificial intelligence]] (AI) plays a pivotal role in the development and operation of autonomous vehicles (AVs), enabling them to perceive their surroundings, make decisions, and navigate safely without human intervention. AI algorithms empower AVs to interpret sensory data from various onboard sensors, such as cameras, LiDAR, radar, and GPS, to understand their environment and improve its technological ability and overall safety over time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-07 |title=How AI Is Making Autonomous Vehicles Safer |url=https://hai.stanford.edu/news/how-ai-making-autonomous-vehicles-safer |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=hai.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref>

== Challenges ==
[[File:Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Pileup.jpg|thumb|Autonomous delivery vehicles stuck in one place by attempting to avoid one another]]

=== Obstacles ===
The primary obstacle to ACs is the advanced software and mapping required to make them work safely across the wide variety of conditions that drivers experience.<ref name="auto3">{{cite news |last=Henn |first=Steve |date=31 July 2015 |title=Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism |newspaper=NPR.org |publisher=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2015/07/31/427990392/remembering-when-driverless-elevators-drew-skepticism |access-date=14 August 2016}}</ref> In addition to handling day/night driving in good and bad weather<ref name="technologyreview" /> on roads of arbitrary quality, ACs must cope with other vehicles, road obstacles, poor/missing traffic controls, flawed maps, and handle endless edge cases, such as following the instructions of a police officer managing traffic at a crash site.

Other obstacles include cost, liability,<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|title=Being digital|last=Negroponte|first=Nicholas|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0679762904|oclc=68020226}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=http://www.technewsworld.com/story/83102.html|title=Feds Put AI in the Driver's Seat|last=Adhikari|first=Richard|date=11 February 2016|work=Technewsworld|access-date=12 February 2016}}</ref> consumer reluctance,<ref name="auto2">{{cite press release|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-allstate-survey-shows-americans-think-they-are-great-drivers---habits-tell-a-different-story-126563103.html|title=New Allstate Survey Shows Americans Think They Are Great Drivers – Habits Tell a Different Story|date=2 August 2011|agency=PR Newswire|access-date=7 September 2013}}</ref> ethical dilemmas,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Lin |first=Patrick |date=8 October 2013 |title=The Ethics of Autonomous Cars |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/10/the-ethics-of-autonomous-cars/280360/ |magazine=The Atlantic}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skulmowski |first1=Alexander |last2=Bunge |first2=Andreas |last3=Kaspar |first3=Kai |last4=Pipa |first4=Gordon |date=16 December 2014 |title=Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=8 |page=426 |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00426 |pmc=4267265 |pmid=25565997 |doi-access=free}}</ref> security,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alsulami |first1=Abdulaziz A. |last2=Abu Al-Haija |first2=Qasem |last3=Alqahtani |first3=Ali |last4=Alsini |first4=Raed |date=15 July 2022 |title=Symmetrical Simulation Scheme for Anomaly Detection in Autonomous Vehicles Based on LSTM Model |journal=Symmetry |language=en |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1450 |bibcode=2022Symm...14.1450A |doi=10.3390/sym14071450 |issn=2073-8994 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Moore-Colyer |first=Roland |date=12 February 2015 |title=Driverless cars face cyber security, skills and safety challenges |url=https://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/analysis/2394924/driverless-cars-face-cyber-security-skills-and-safety-challenges |access-date=24 April 2015 |website=v3.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Petit |first1=J. |last2=Shladover |first2=S.E. |date=1 April 2015 |title=Potential Cyberattacks on Automated Vehicles |journal=IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=546–556 |doi=10.1109/TITS.2014.2342271 |bibcode=2015ITITr..16..546P |issn=1524-9050 |s2cid=15605711}}</ref><ref name="autosens">{{cite web |last=Tussy |first=Ron |date=29 April 2016 |title=Challenges facing Autonomous Vehicle Development |url=http://auto-sens.com/the-challenges-facing-autonomous-vehicles/ |access-date=5 May 2016 |publisher=AutoSens}}</ref> privacy,<ref name="technologyreview">{{cite news |last=Gomes |first=Lee |date=28 August 2014 |title=Hidden Obstacles for Google's Self-Driving Cars |magazine=MIT Technology Review |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/530276/hidden-obstacles-for-googles-self-driving-cars/ |url-status=dead |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316001705/http://www.technologyreview.com/news/530276/hidden-obstacles-for-googles-self-driving-cars/ |archive-date=16 March 2015}}</ref> and legal/regulatory framework.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2013/09/24/will-regulators-allow-self-driving-cars-in-a-few-years/|title=Will Regulators Allow Self-Driving Cars in a Few Years?|date=24 September 2013|work=Forbes|access-date=5 January 2014}}</ref> Further, AVs could automate the work of professional drivers, eliminating many jobs, which could slow acceptance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/11/18/5120270/reliance-on-autopilot-is-now-the-biggest-threat-to-flight-safety|title=Reliance on autopilot is now the biggest threat to flight safety, study says|date=18 November 2013 |work=The Verge |first=Casey |last=Newton |access-date=19 November 2013}}</ref>

=== Concerns ===

==== Deceptive marketing ====
Tesla calls its Level 2 ADAS "Full Self-Driving (FSD) Beta".<ref name="Tesla_FSD_202108">{{cite web |last=Stumpf |first=Rob |title=Tesla Admits Current "Full Self-Driving Beta" Will Always Be a Level 2 System: Emails
|url=https://www.thedrive.com/tech/39647/tesla-admits-current-full-self-driving-beta-will-always-be-a-level-2-system-emails |access-date=29 August 2021 |website=The Drive|date=8 March 2021 }}</ref> US Senators [[Richard Blumenthal]] and [[Edward Markey]] called on the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) to investigate this marketing in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |author=Keith Barry |title=Senators Call for Investigation of Tesla's Marketing Claims of Its Autopilot and "Full Self-Driving" Features 
|url=https://www.consumerreports.org/advertising-claims/call-to-investigate-tesla-marketing-claims-autopilot-fsd-a1181594362/ 
|website=[[Consumer Reports]] |access-date=13 April 2020 }}</ref> In December 2021 in Japan, Mercedes-Benz was punished by the [[Consumer Affairs Agency]] for misleading product descriptions.<ref name="NHK_Mercedes_2021">{{cite news|date=10 December 2021 |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20211210/k10013383761000.html| title=メルセデス・ベンツ日本に措置命令 事実と異なる記載 消費者庁 |trans-title=Administrative order to Mercedes-Benz Japan Co., Ltd. for the descriptions that are different from the fact – The Consumer Affairs Agency |language=ja |work=[[NHK]], Japan |access-date=13 April 2022 }}</ref>

Mercedes-Benz was criticized for a misleading US commercial advertising [[Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)|E-Class models]].<ref>{{cite news |date=28 July 2016 |author=Steph Willems |title=Mercedes-Benz Slammed Over Misleading Commercial |url=https://www-thetruthaboutcars-com.translate.goog/2016/07/mercedes-benz-slammed-misleading-ad-ad-seems-go-missing/?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ja&_x_tr_hl=ja&_x_tr_pto=op,sc
|work=The Truth About Cars |access-date=15 April 2022}}</ref> At that time, Mercedes-Benz rejected the claims and stopped its "self-driving car" ad campaign that had been running.<ref>{{cite news |date=29 July 2016 |author=Aaron Brown |title=Mercedes-Benz to Stop Running "Self-Driving Car" Ads |url=https://www-thedrive-com.translate.goog/news/4632/mercedes-benz-to-stop-running-self-driving-car-ads?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ja&_x_tr_hl=ja&_x_tr_pto=op,sc |work=The Drive |access-date=15 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=25 April 2016 |title=Mercedes rejects claims about "misleading" self-driving car ads |url=https://www-reuters-com.translate.goog/article/us-mercedes-marketing-idUSKCN1081VV?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ja&_x_tr_hl=ja&_x_tr_pto=op,sc |agency=[[Reuters]] |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531204702/https://www-reuters-com.translate.goog/article/us-mercedes-marketing-idUSKCN1081VV?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ja&_x_tr_hl=ja&_x_tr_pto=op,sc |url-status=dead }}</ref> In August 2022, the [[California Department of Motor Vehicles]] (DMV) accused Tesla of deceptive marketing practices.<ref name="cbt_2022">{{cite news|date=9 August 2022 |url=https://www.cbtnews.com/california-dmw-accuses-tesla-of-deceptive-marketing-for-its-self-driving-tech/ |title=California DMV accuses Tesla of deceptive marketing for its self-driving tech |work=CBT Automotive Network |access-date=22 November 2022 }}</ref>

With the Automated Vehicles Bill (AVB) self-driving car-makers could face prison for misleading adverts in the United-Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Matthew |last=Sparkes |date=13 November 2023 |title=Self-driving car-makers could face prison for misleading adverts in UK |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2402075-self-driving-car-makers-could-face-prison-for-misleading-adverts-in-uk/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=New Scientist |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Security ====
In the 2020s, concerns over ACs' vulnerability to cyberattacks and data theft emerged.<ref>{{cite journal |date=28 June 2021 |author=James Andrew Lewis |title=National Security Implications of Leadership in Autonomous Vehicles |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/national-security-implications-leadership-autonomous-vehicles |website=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies|CSIS]] |access-date=12 April 2022 }}</ref>

==== Espionage ====
In 2018 and 2019, former Apple engineers were charged with stealing information related to Apple's self-driving car project.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 July 2018 |author=Allyson Chiu |title=Ex-Apple engineer arrested on his way to China, charged with stealing company's autonomous car secrets |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/07/11/ex-apple-engineer-arrested-on-his-way-to-china-charged-with-stealing-companys-autonomous-car-secrets/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=18 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news 
|date=22 August 2022 |author=Kif Leswing |title=Former Apple engineer accused of stealing automotive trade secrets pleads guilty |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/08/22/former-apple-employee-xiaolang-zhang-pleads-guilty-.html |publisher=[[CNBC]] |access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=30 January 2019 |author=Sean O'Kane |title=A second Apple employee was charged with stealing self-driving car project secrets |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/1/30/18203718/apple-self-driving-trade-secrets-china-titan |work=[[The Verge]] |access-date=18 April 2022}}</ref> In 2021 the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ) accused Chinese security officials of coordinating a hacking campaign to steal information from government entities, including research related to autonomous vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|date=19 July 2021 |title=Four Chinese Nationals Working with the Ministry of State Security Charged with Global Computer Intrusion Campaign Targeting Intellectual Property and Confidential Business Information, Including Infectious Disease Research |url=https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/four-chinese-nationals-working-ministry-state-security-charged-global-computer-intrusion |website=[[United States Department of Justice|DOJ, US]] |access-date=14 June 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=19 July 2021 |author=Katie Benner |title=The Justice Dept. accuses Chinese security officials of a hacking attack seeking data on viruses like Ebola. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/19/us/politics/chinese-hackers-justice-dept.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=14 June 2022 }}</ref> China has prepared "the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security (Trial) to protect its own data".<ref name="CN_ADS_2021">{{cite web|date=24 August 2021 |author1=Mark Schaub |author2=Atticus Zhao |author3=Mark Fu |title=China MIIT formulating new rules on data security |url=https://www.kwm.com/cn/en/insights/latest-thinking/china-issues-new-rules-on-data-security-in-auto-industry.html |website=[[King & Wood Mallesons]] |access-date=23 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |date=1 July 2022 |author=[[Justin Ling]] |title=Is Your New Car a Threat to National Security? |url=https://www.wired.com/story/china-cars-surveillance-national-security/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=3 July 2022 }}</ref>

[[Cellular V2X|Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything]] technologies are based on [[Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks|5G wireless networks]].<ref>{{cite web|date=4 November 2019 |author= Charles McLellan |title=What is V2X communication? Creating connectivity for the autonomous car era |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/guide-to-autonomous-vehicles-what-business-leaders-need-to-know/ |publisher=[[ZDNet]] |access-date=8 May 2022 }}</ref> {{As of|November 2022}}, the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] was considering the possibility that imported Chinese AC technology could facilitate espionage.<ref name="Wired_2022">{{cite news|date=21 November 2022 |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/autonomous-vehicles-china-us-national-security |title=Autonomous Vehicles Join the List of US National Security Threats |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=22 November 2022 }}</ref>

Testing of Chinese automated cars in the US has raised concern over which US data are collected by Chinese vehicles to be stored in China and any link with the Chinese communist party.<ref>{{cite news|title=US lawmakers raise concerns over Chinese self-driving testing data collection |first=David |last=Shepardson |date=16 November 2023 |publisher=[Reuters] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/lawmakers-voice-concern-chinese-autonomous-vehicle-firms-collecting-us-testing-2023-11-16/ |access-date=February 1, 2024}}</ref>

==== Driver communications ====
ACs complicate the need for drivers to communicate with each other, e.g., to decide which car enters an intersection first. In an AC without a driver, traditional means such as hand signals do not work (no driver, no hands).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/what-s-big-orange-covered-leds-start-s-new-approach-ncna897151|title=What's big, orange and covered in LEDs? This start-up's new approach to self-driving cars|date=3 August 2018 |publisher=NBC News}}</ref>

==== Behavior prediction ====
ACs must be able to predict the behavior of possibly moving vehicles, pedestrians, etc, in real time in order to proceed safely.<ref name=":7" /> The task becomes more challenging the further into the future the prediction extends, requiring rapid revisions to the estimate to cope with unpredicted behavior. One approach is to wholly recompute the position and trajectory of each object many times per second. Another is to cache the results of an earlier prediction for use in the next one to reduce computational complexity.<ref name="crosato24virtual">{{cite conference |last1=Crosato |first1=Luca |last2=Shum |first2=Hubert P. H. |last3=Ho |first3=Edmond S. L. |last4=Wei |first4=Chongfeng |last5=Sun |first5=Yuzhu |date=2024 |title=A Virtual Reality Framework for Human-Driver Interaction Research: Safe and Cost-Effective Data Collection |url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3610977.3634923 |conference=2024 ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human Robot Interaction |publisher=ACM/IEEE|doi=10.1145/3610977.3634923 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=City University of Hong Kong |date=September 6, 2023 |title=Novel AI system enhances the predictive accuracy of autonomous driving |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-09-ai-accuracy-autonomous.html |website=techxplore.com}}</ref>

==== Handover ====
The ADAS has to be able to safely accept control from and return control to the driver.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 April 2018 |title=Human Factors behind Autonomous Vehicles |url=https://www-robsonforensic-com.translate.goog/articles/autonomous-vehicle-human-factors-expert?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ja&_x_tr_hl=ja&_x_tr_pto=op,sc |website=Robson Forensic
|access-date=17 April 2022 }}</ref>

==== Trust ====
Consumers will avoid ACs unless they trust them as safe.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2015|title=Trust in Automation – Before and After the Experience of Take-over Scenarios in a Highly Automated Vehicle|journal=Procedia Manufacturing|volume=3|pages=3025–3032|doi=10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.847|issn=2351-9789|last1=Gold|first1=Christian|last2=Körber|first2=Moritz|last3=Hohenberger|first3=Christoph|last4=Lechner|first4=David|last5=Bengler|first5=Klaus|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://gmauthority.com/blog/2017/08/survey-data-suggests-self-driving-cars-could-be-slow-to-gain-consumer-trust/|title=Survey Data Suggests Self-Driving Cars Could Be Slow To Gain Consumer Trust|work=GM Authority|access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Robotaxis operating in San Francisco received pushback over perceived safety risks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-11 |title=California agency approves San Francisco robotaxi expansion amid heavy opposition |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/08/11/san-francisco-robotaxi-expansion-approval-faces-heavy-opposition.html |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> Automatic elevators were invented in 1900, but did not become common until operator strikes and trust was built with advertising and features such as an emergency stop button.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2015/07/31/427990392/remembering-when-driverless-elevators-drew-skepticism|title=Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism|website=NPR.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2015/07/29/427467598/episode-642-the-big-red-button|title=Episode 642: The Big Red Button|website=NPR.org}}</ref> However, with repeated use of autonomous driving functions, drivers' behavior and trust in autonomous vehicles gradually improved and both entered a more stable state. At the same time, this also improved the performance and reliability of the vehicle in complex conditions, thereby increasing public trust.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Metz |first1=Barbara |last2=Wörle |first2=Johanna |last3=Hanig |first3=Michael |last4=Schmitt |first4=Marcus |last5=Lutz |first5=Aaron |last6=Neukum |first6=Alexandra |date=2021-08-01 |title=Repeated usage of a motorway automated driving function: Automation level and behavioural adaption |journal=Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour |volume=81 |pages=82–100 |doi=10.1016/j.trf.2021.05.017 |issn=1369-8478|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021TRPF...81...82M }}</ref>

==== Economics ====
Autonomy also presents various political and economic implications. The transportation sector holds significant sway in many political and economic landscapes. For instance, many US states generate much annual revenue from transportation fees and taxes.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Talbott |first=Selika Josiah |title=The Political Economy Of Autonomous Vehicles |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/selikajosiahtalbott/2020/06/23/the-political-economy-of-autonomous-vehicles/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> The advent of self-driving cars could profoundly affect the economy by potentially altering state tax revenue streams. Furthermore, the transition to autonomous vehicles might disrupt employment patterns and labor markets, particularly in industries heavily reliant on driving professions.<ref name=":17" /> Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that in 2019, the sector employed over two million individuals as tractor-trailer truck drivers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Occupational Outlook Handbook: Heavy and Tractor trailer Truck Drivers |url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/transportation-and-material-moving/heavy-and-tractor-trailer-truck-drivers.htm |website=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |publisher=Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref> Additionally, taxi and delivery drivers represented approximately 370,400 positions, and bus drivers constituted a workforce of over 680,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Occupational Outlook Handbook: Delivery Truck Drivers and Driver/Sales Workers |url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/transportation-and-material-moving/delivery-truck-drivers-and-driver-sales-workers.htm |website=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |publisher=Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Occupational Outlook Handbook: Taxi Drivers, Shuttle Drivers, and Chauffeurs |url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/transportation-and-material-moving/taxi-drivers-and-chauffeurs.htm |website=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |publisher=Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Occupational Outlook Handbook: Bus Drivers |url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/transportation-and-material-moving/bus-drivers.htm |website=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |publisher=Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref> Collectively, this amounts to a conceivable displacement of nearly 2.9 million jobs, surpassing the job losses experienced in the 2008 Great Recession.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Goodman, Mance |first1=Christopher, Steven |title=Employment Loss and the 2007–09 Recession: An Overview |url=https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2011/04/art1full.pdf |website=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref>

==== Equity and inclusion ====
The prominence of certain demographic groups within the tech industry inevitably shapes the trajectory of autonomous vehicle (AV) development, potentially perpetuating existing inequalities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diversity and STEM: Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities 2023 {{!}} NSF - National Science Foundation |url=https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf23315/report |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=ncses.nsf.gov}}</ref>

=== Ethical issues ===
{{See also|Machine ethics}}

==== Pedestrian detection ====
Research from Georgia Tech revealed that autonomous vehicle detection systems were generally five percent less effective at recognizing darker-skinned individuals. This accuracy gap persisted despite adjustments for environmental variables like lighting and visual obstructions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Samuel |first1=Sigal |title=A new study finds a potential risk with self-driving cars: failure to detect dark-skinned pedestrians |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/3/5/18251924/self-driving-car-racial-bias-study-autonomous-vehicle-dark-skin |website=Vox |date=5 March 2019 |publisher=VoxMedia |access-date=22 April 2024}}</ref>

==== Rationale for liability ====
Standards for liability have yet to be adopted to address crashes and other incidents. Liability could rest with the vehicle occupant, its owner, the vehicle manufacturer, or even the ADAS technology supplier, possibly depending on the circumstances of the crash.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal
|author1=Alexander Hevelke |author2=Julian Nida-Rümelin |title=Responsibility for Crashes of Autonomous Vehicles: An Ethical Analysis |journal=Sci Eng Ethics |year=2015 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=619–630 |doi=10.1007/s11948-014-9565-5 |pmid=25027859 |pmc=4430591 }}</ref> Additionally, the infusion of [[Artificial intelligence|ArtificiaI Intelligence]] technology in autonomous vehicles adds layers of complexity to ownership and ethical dynamics. Given that AI systems are inherently self-learning, a question arises of whether accountability should rest with the vehicle owner, the manufacturer, or the AI developer.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-18 |title=The Ethical Considerations of Self-Driving Cars |url=https://montrealethics.ai/the-ethical-considerations-of-self-driving-cars/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=Montreal AI Ethics Institute |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Trolley problem ====
The [[trolley problem]] is a [[thought experiment]] in [[ethics]]. Adapted for ACs, it considers an AC carrying one passenger confronting a pedestrian who steps in its way. The ADAS notionally has to choose between killing the pedestrian or swerving into a wall, killing the passenger.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Himmelreich|first=Johannes|date=17 May 2018|title=Never Mind the Trolley: The Ethics of Autonomous Vehicles in Mundane Situations|journal=Ethical Theory and Moral Practice|volume=21|issue=3|pages=669–684|doi=10.1007/s10677-018-9896-4|s2cid=150184601|issn=1386-2820}}</ref> Possible frameworks include [[Deontological ethics|deontology]] (formal rules) and [[utilitarianism]] (harm reduction).<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Road vehicle automation|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=TxmfDAAAQBAJ}}|last1=Meyer|first1=G.|last2=Beiker|first2=S|publisher=Springer International Publishing|year=2014|pages=93–102}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karnouskos|first=Stamatis|year=2020|title=Self-Driving Car Acceptance and the Role of Ethics|journal=IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management|volume=67|issue=2|pages=252–265|doi=10.1109/TEM.2018.2877307|bibcode=2020ITEM...67..252K |s2cid=115447875|issn=0018-9391}}</ref>

One public opinion survey reported that harm reduction was preferred, except that passengers wanted the vehicle to prefer them, while pedestrians took the opposite view. Utilitarian regulations were unpopular.<ref name="Jean-François Bonnefon 1510">{{cite journal |author1=Jean-François Bonnefon |author2=Azim Shariff |author3=Iyad Rahwan |year=2016 |title=The Social Dilemma of Autonomous Vehicles |journal=Science |volume=352 |issue=6293 |pages=1573–6 |arxiv=1510.03346 |bibcode=2016Sci...352.1573B |doi=10.1126/science.aaf2654 |pmid=27339987 |s2cid=35400794}}</ref> Additionally, cultural viewpoints exert substantial influence on shaping responses to these ethical quandaries. Another study found that cultural biases impact preferences in prioritizing the rescue of certain individuals over others in car accident scenarios.<ref name=":18" />

==== Privacy ====
Some ACs require an internet connection to function, opening the possibility that a hacker might gain access to private information such as destinations, routes, camera recordings, media preferences, and/or behavioral patterns, although this is true of an internet-connected device.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Lim |first1=Hazel Si Min |last2=Taeihagh |first2=Araz |year=2018 |title=Autonomous Vehicles for Smart and Sustainable Cities: An In-Depth Exploration of Privacy and Cybersecurity Implications |journal=Energies |volume=11 |issue=5 |page=1062 |doi=10.3390/en11051062|bibcode=2018arXiv180410367L|arxiv=1804.10367|s2cid=13749987|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/03/self-driving-cars-and-the-looming-privacy-apocalypse/474600/|title=How Self-Driving Cars Will Threaten Privacy|last=Lafrance|first=Adrienne|date=21 March 2016|access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jack|first=Boeglin|date=1 January 2015|title=The Costs of Self-Driving Cars: Reconciling Freedom and Privacy with Tort Liability in Autonomous Vehicle Regulation|url=http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjolt/vol17/iss1/4|journal=Yale Journal of Law and Technology|volume=17|issue=1}}</ref>

=== Road infrastructure ===
ACs make use of road infrastructure (e.g., traffic signs, turn lanes) and may require modifications to that infrastructure to fully achieve their safety and other goals.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 January 2023 |author=Steve McEvoy |title=What are the next steps to reaching Level 4 autonomy? |url=https://www.automotiveworld.com/articles/what-are-the-next-steps-to-reaching-level-4-autonomy/ |website=Automotive World |access-date=5 April 2023 }}</ref> In March 2023, the Japanese government unveiled a plan to set up a dedicated highway lane for ACs.<ref name="Yomiuri_2023-04-10">{{cite web|date=1 April 2023 |title=Japan Planning 100-kilometer Lane for Self-Driving Vehicles |url=https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/general-news/20230401-100928/ |website=[[Yomiuri Shimbun]] |access-date=11 April 2023}}</ref> In April 2023, [[East Japan Railway Company|JR East]] announced their challenge to raise their self-driving level of [[Kesennuma Line]] [[bus rapid transit]] (BRT) in rural area from the current Level 2 to Level 4 at 60&nbsp;km/h.<ref>{{cite web|date=4 April 2023 |title=気仙沼線 BRT における自動運転レベル4認証取得を目指します |trans-title=Challenging self-driving Level 4 approval of Kesennuma Line BRT |url=https://www.jreast.co.jp/press/2023/20230404_ho01.pdf |website=[[East Japan Railway Company|JR East]] |access-date=5 April 2023 }}</ref>

== Testing ==
=== Approaches ===
ACs can be tested via digital simulations,<ref>{{cite web |date=18 June 2018 |title=Automobile simulation example |url=https://www.cyberbotics.com/doc/automobile/index |access-date=18 June 2018 |work=Cyberbotics}}</ref><ref name="scenarios">{{cite journal |last1=Hallerbach |first1=S. |last2=Xia |first2=Y. |last3=Eberle |first3=U. |last4=Koester |first4=F. |year=2018 |title=Simulation-Based Identification of Critical Scenarios for Cooperative and Automated Vehicles |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324194968 |journal=SAE International Journal of Connected and Automated Vehicles |publisher=SAE International |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=93–106 |doi=10.4271/2018-01-1066}}</ref> in a controlled test environment,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtc.umich.edu/|title=Mcity testing center|date=8 December 2016|work=University of Michigan|access-date=13 February 2017|archive-date=16 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216092805/http://www.mtc.umich.edu/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and/or on public roads. Road testing typically requires some form of permit<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/dmv/detail/vr/autonomous/testing|title=Adopted Regulations for Testing of Autonomous Vehicles by Manufacturers|date=18 June 2016|work=DMV|access-date=13 February 2017}}</ref> or a commitment to adhere to acceptable operating principles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/automated-vehicle-technologies-testing-code-of-practice|title=The Pathway to Driverless Cars: A Code of Practice for testing|date=19 July 2015|access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref> For example, New York requires a test driver to be in the vehicle, prepared to override the ADAS as necessary.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dmv.ny.gov/dmv/apply-autonomous-vehicle-technology-demonstration-testing-permit | title=Apply for an Autonomous Vehicle Technology Demonstration / Testing Permit| date=9 May 2017}}</ref>

=== 2010s and disengagements ===
[[File:Waymo self-driving car front view.gk.jpg|thumb|A prototype of [[Waymo]]'s self-driving car, navigating public streets in [[Mountain View, California]] in 2017]]
In California, self-driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual reports describing how often their vehicles autonomously disengaged from autonomous mode.<ref>{{cite web|title=Disengagement Reports |url=https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/vehicle-industry-services/autonomous-vehicles/disengagement-reports/ |website=[[California Department of Motor Vehicles|California DMV]] |access-date=24 April 2022 }}</ref> This is one measure of system robustness (ideally, the system should never disengage).<ref name="Templeton_2021">{{cite news|author=[[Brad Templeton]] |date=9 February 2021 |title=California Robocar Disengagement Reports Reveal Tidbits About Tesla, AutoX, Apple, Others |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bradtempleton/2021/02/09/california-robocar-disengagement-reports-reveal-about-tesla-autox-apple-others/?sh=170c8ff27fab |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=24 April 2022 }}</ref>

In 2017, Waymo reported 63 disengagements over {{convert|352545|mi|abbr=on}} of testing, an average distance of {{convert|5596|mi|abbr=on}} between disengagements, the highest (best) among companies reporting such figures. Waymo also logged more autonomous miles than other companies. Their 2017 rate of 0.18 disengagements per {{convert|1000|mi|abbr=on}} was an improvement over the 0.2 disengagements per {{convert|1000|mi|abbr=on}} in 2016, and 0.8 in 2015. In March 2017, Uber reported an average of {{convert|0.67|mi|abbr=on}} per disengagement. In the final three months of 2017, [[Cruise Automation|Cruise]] (owned by [[General Motors|GM]]) averaged {{convert|5224|mi|abbr=on}} per disengagement over {{convert|62689|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2018/03/uber-self-driving-system-was-still-400-times-worse-waymo-in-2018-on-key-distance-intervention-metric.html|title=Uber' self-driving system was still 400 times worse [than] Waymo in 2018 on key distance intervention metric|last=Wang|first=Brian|date=25 March 2018|work=NextBigFuture.com|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Disengagement data
! rowspan="2" | Car maker 
! colspan="2" | California, 2016<ref name=":6" />
! colspan="2" | California, 2018{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}
! colspan="2" | California, 2019<ref>{{cite web|date=26 February 2020|title=California DMV releases autonomous vehicle disengagement reports for 2019|url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/26/california-dmv-releases-latest-batch-of-autonomous-vehicle-disengagement-reports/|access-date=30 November 2020|website=VentureBeat}}</ref>
|-
! data-sort-type=number | Distance between<br />disengagements
! data-sort-type=number | Total distance traveled
! data-sort-type=number | Distance between<br />disengagements
! data-sort-type=number | Total distance traveled
! data-sort-type=number | Distance between<br />disengagements
! data-sort-type=number | Total distance traveled
|-
| [[Waymo]] 
| {{convert|5128|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|635868|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|11154|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|1271587|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|11017|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|1450000|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[BMW]] 
| {{convert|638|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|638|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Nissan]] 
| {{convert|263|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|6056|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{Convert|210|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|5473|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|-
| [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] 
| {{convert|197|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|590|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[General Motors]] 
| {{convert|55|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|8156|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|5205|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|447621|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|12221|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|831040|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Aptiv]] 
| {{convert|15|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|2658|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] 
| {{convert|3|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|550|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Mercedes-Benz]] 
| {{convert|2|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|673|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|1.5|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|1749|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|-
| [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] 
| {{convert|7|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|983|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|
|
|
|-
<!--
|[[Volkswagen Group|Volkswagen]] 
| {{convert|.006|mi|abbr=on}} 
| {{convert|.009|mi|abbr=on}}
|
|-->
|-
|[[Zoox (company)|Zoox]]
|
|
| {{Convert|1923|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|30764|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|1595|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|67015|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Nuro]]
|
|
| {{Convert|1028|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|24680|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|2022|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|68762|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Pony.ai]]
|
|
| {{Convert|1022|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|16356|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|6476|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|174845|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Baidu]] ([[Apolong]])
|
|
| {{Convert|206|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|18093|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|18050|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|108300|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Aurora Innovation|Aurora]]
|
|
| {{Convert|100|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|32858|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|280|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{Convert|39729|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]
|
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| {{Convert|1.1|mi|abbr=on}}
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=== 2020s ===

==== Disengagement definitions ====
Reporting companies use varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement, and such definitions can change over time.<ref>{{cite news|date=10 February 2022 |author=Rebecca Bellan |title=Despite a drop in how many companies are testing autonomous driving on California roads, miles driven are way up |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/02/10/fewer-autonomous-vehicle-companies-in-california-drive-millions-more-miles-in-testing/ |work=[[TechCrunch]] |access-date=25 April 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Templeton_2021" /> Executives of self-driving car companies have criticized disengagements as a deceptive metric, because it does not consider varying road conditions.<ref name="slate_2022-12">{{cite news|date=8 December 2022 |author=David Zipper |title=Self-Driving Taxis Are Causing All Kinds of Trouble in San Francisco |url=https://slate.com/technology/2022/12/san-francisco-waymo-cruise-self-driving-cars-robotaxis.html |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |access-date=9 December 2022 }}</ref>

==== Standards ====
In April 2021, [[World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations|WP.29]] GRVA proposed a "Test Method for Automated Driving (NATM)".<ref>{{cite web|date=13 April 2021 |title=(GRVA) New Assessment/Test Method for Automated Driving (NATM) – Master Document |url=https://unece.org/transport/documents/2021/04/working-documents/grva-new-assessmenttest-method-automated-driving-natm |website=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] |access-date=23 April 2022 }}</ref>

In October 2021, Europe's pilot test, L3Pilot, demonstrated ADAS for cars in [[Hamburg]], Germany, in conjunction with [[World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems|ITS World Congress 2021]]. SAE Level 3 and 4 functions were tested on ordinary roads.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 October 2021 |title=L3Pilot: Joint European effort boosts automated driving |url=https://www.connectedautomateddriving.eu/blog/l3pilot-joint-european-effort-boosts-automated-driving/ |website=Connected Automated Driving |access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="ITSWC2021">{{cite web |date=13 October 2021 |title=From the Final Event Week: On Motorways |url=https://l3pilot.eu/detail/news/from-the-final-event-week-on-motorways |website=L3Pilot |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427221346/https://l3pilot.eu/detail/news/from-the-final-event-week-on-motorways |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=L3Pilot Final Project Results published |url=https://l3pilot.eu/detail/news/l3pilot-final-project-results-published |website=L3Pilot |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522015155/https://l3pilot.eu/detail/news/l3pilot-final-project-results-published |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In November 2022, an International Standard ISO 34502 on "[[Scenario (vehicular automation)|Scenario]] based safety evaluation framework" was published.<ref name="ISO_34502">{{cite web|date=November 2022 |title=ISO 34502:2022 Road vehicles — Test scenarios for automated driving systems — Scenario based safety evaluation framework |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/78951.html |website=[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] |access-date=17 November 2022 }}</ref><ref name="METI_34502">{{cite web|date=16 November 2022 |title=New International Standard Issued for the Scenario-Based Safety Evaluation Framework for Automated Driving Systems Formulated by Japan |url=https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2022/1116_003.html |website=[[Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|METI, Japan]] |access-date=14 December 2022 }}</ref>

==== Collision avoidance ====
In April 2022, collision avoidance testing was demonstrated by [[Nissan]].<ref>{{cite web|author= |title=New driver-assistance technology dramatically improves collision-avoidance performance |url=https://www.nissan-global.com/EN/INNOVATION/TECHNOLOGY/ARCHIVE/ADVANCED_DRIVER_ASSISTANCE_TECH/ |website=[[Nissan]] |access-date=15 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Graham Hope |date=26 April 2022 |title=Nissan Tests Collision Avoidance Tech for Self-Driving Cars |url=https://www.iotworldtoday.com/2022/04/26/nissan-tests-collision-avoidance-tech-for-self-driving-cars/ |website=IoT World Today |access-date=15 December 2022 }}</ref> [[Waymo]] published a document about collision avoidance testing in December 2022.<ref>{{cite web|author= |date=14 December 2022 |title=Waymo's Collision Avoidance Testing: Evaluating our Driver's Ability to Avoid Crashes Compared to Humans |url=https://blog.waymo.com/2022/12/waymos-collision-avoidance-testing.html |website=[[Waymo]] |access-date=15 December 2022 }}</ref>

==== Simulation and validation ====
In September 2022, Biprogy released Driving Intelligence Validation Platform (DIVP) as part of Japanese national project "SIP-adus", which is interoperable with Open Simulation Interface (OSI) of [[Association for Standardisation of Automation and Measuring Systems|ASAM]].<ref>{{cite web|date=6 September 2022 |title=SIP自動運転の成果を活用した安全性評価用シミュレーションソフトの製品化～戦略的イノベーション創造プログラム（SIP）研究成果を社会実装へ～ |trans-title=Commercial product of the achievement of SIP-adus: Driving Intelligence Validation Platform |url=https://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/stmain/20220906divp.html |website=[[Cabinet Office (Japan)|Cabinet Office, Japan]] |access-date=10 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=DIVP |url=https://divp.net/ |website=DVIP |access-date=10 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Seigo Kuzumaki |title=Development of "Driving Intelligence Validation Platform" for ADS safety assurance |url=https://en.sip-adus.go.jp/wp/wp-content/uploads/presentation_material2021.pdf |website=SIP-adus |access-date=12 September 2022 }}</ref>

==== Toyota ====
In November 2022, [[Toyota]] demonstrated one of [[Toyota GR Yaris|its GR Yaris]] test cars, which had been trained using professional rally drivers.<ref>{{cite news|date=17 November 2021 |author= |title=Toyota pushes AI to drive like pros |url=https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/business/companies/20221117-71380/ |work=[[Yomiuri Shimbun]] |access-date=20 November 2022 }}</ref> Toyota used its collaboration with [[Microsoft]] in FIA [[World Rally Championship]] since the 2017 season.<ref>{{cite web|date=20 September 2016 |title=Microsoft and Toyota Join Forces in FIA World Rally Championship |url=https://global.toyota/en/detail/13770530 |website=[[Toyota]]l |access-date=20 November 2022 }}</ref>

==== Pedestrian reactions ====
In 2023 David R. Large, senior research fellow with the Human Factors Research Group at the [[University of Nottingham]], disguised himself as a car seat in a study to test people's reactions to driverless cars. He said, "We wanted to explore how pedestrians would interact with a driverless car and developed this unique methodology to explore their reactions." The study found that, in the absence of someone in the driving seat, pedestrians trust certain visual prompts more than others when deciding whether to cross the road.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-england-nottinghamshire-65857348 | title=Driver disguises himself as car seat for study | work=BBC News }}</ref>

== Incidents ==
=== Tesla ===
{{See also|List of Tesla Autopilot crashes}}

As of 2023, Tesla's ADAS [[Tesla Autopilot|Autopilot]]/Full Self Driving (beta) was classified as Level 2 ADAS.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mulac |first=Jordan h |date=2023-02-28 |title=Tesla admits its semi-autonomous driving tech is not the world's most advanced |url=https://www.drive.com.au/news/tesla-full-self-driving-level-2-autonomous/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=Drive |language=en-AU}}</ref>

On 20 January 2016, the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred, in China's Hubei province.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tesla Fatalities Dataset|url=https://datasetsearch.research.google.com/search?query=tesla%20deaths&docid=QYBSmRGFh9iXZv8xAAAAAA==|access-date=17 October 2020}}</ref> Initially, Tesla stated that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to determine whether the car had been on Autopilot at the time. However, the car failed to take evasive action.

Another fatal Autopilot crash occurred in May in Florida in a Tesla Model S<ref name="china-fatality">{{cite news|url=https://qz.com/783009/the-scary-similarities-between-teslas-tsla-deadly-autopilot-crashes|title=There are some scary similarities between Tesla's deadly crashes linked to Autopilot|work=Quartz|first1=Josh|last1=Horwitz|first2=Heather|last2=Timmons|date=20 September 2016|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://c.m.163.com/news/a/C0UBU2I0002580S6.html|title=China's first accidental death due to Tesla's automatic driving: not hitting the front bumper|language=zh|work=[[Media of China|China State Media]]|date=14 September 2016|access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref> that crashed into a [[tractor-trailer]]. In a civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla, Tesla documented that the car had been on Autopilot.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jalopnik.com/two-years-on-a-father-is-still-fighting-tesla-over-aut-1823189786|title=Two Years On, A Father Is Still Fighting Tesla Over Autopilot And His Son's Fatal Crash|first=Ryan|last=Felton|website=jalopnik.com|date=27 February 2018|access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref> According to Tesla, "neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." Tesla claimed that this was Tesla's first known Autopilot death in over {{convert|130|e6mi|e6km|abbr=off|sp=us}} with Autopilot engaged. Tesla claimed that on average one fatality occurs every {{convert|94|e6mi|e6km|abbr=off|sp=us}} across all vehicle types in the US.<ref name="AutopilotCrash01">{{cite news |last1=Yadron |first1=Danny |last2=Tynan |first2=Dan |date=1 July 2016 |title=Tesla driver dies in first fatal crash while using autopilot mode |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jun/30/tesla-autopilot-death-self-driving-car-elon-musk |access-date=1 July 2016 |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref name="AutopilotCrash02">{{cite news |last1=Vlasic |first1=Bill |last2=Boudette |first2=Neal E. |date=30 June 2016 |title=Self-Driving Tesla Involved in Fatal Crash |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/01/business/self-driving-tesla-fatal-crash-investigation.html |access-date=1 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=A Tragic Loss|date=30 June 2016|publisher=[[Tesla Motors]]|url=https://www.teslamotors.com/blog/tragic-loss|quote=This is the first known fatality in just over 130 million miles where Autopilot was activated. Among all vehicles in the US, there is a fatality every 94&nbsp;million miles. Worldwide, there is a fatality approximately every 60&nbsp;million miles.|access-date=1 July 2016}}</ref> However, this number also includes motorcycle/pedestrian fatalities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/samabuelsamid/2016/07/05/adding-some-statistical-perspective-to-tesla-autopilot-safety-claims|title=Adding Some Statistical Perspective To Tesla Autopilot Safety Claims|last=Abuelsamid|first=Sam|website=[[Forbes]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www-fars.nhtsa.dot.gov/Main/index.aspx|title=FARS Encyclopedia|last=Administration|first=National Highway Traffic Safety}}</ref> The ultimate [[National Transportation Safety Board]] (NTSB) report concluded Tesla was not at fault; the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars, the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/1/19/14323990/tesla-autopilot-fatal-accident-nhtsa-investigation-ends|title=Fatal Tesla Autopilot accident investigation ends with no recall ordered|date=19 January 2016|access-date=19 January 2017|website=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

In February 2025, a Tesla Cybertruck crashed while in Full-Self Driving mode, raising concerns about autonomous driving and prompting an investigation from Tesla who said the crash would be probed "“in line with standard protocol when any of our electric vehicles are involved in an accident while in FSD mode.”<ref>{{Cite web |last=McAndrew |first=Fernando Cervantes Jr and Siobhan |title=Tesla Cybertruck crash into a pole in Nevada was in self-driving mode: owner |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2025/02/14/tesla-cybertruck-crash-in-reno-nevada-self-driving-mode/78643113007/ |access-date=2025-02-15 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepardson |first=David |date=2025-02-15 |title=Tesla Launches Investigation Into Cybertruck FSD Crash Ahead of Robotaxi Launch |url=https://londoninsider.co.uk/tesla-launches-investigation-into-cybertruck-fsd-crash-ahead-of-robotaxi-launch/ |access-date=2025-02-15 |website=London Insider |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Google Waymo ===
{{main|Waymo#Accidents}}
[[File:Google driverless car at intersection.gk.jpg|thumb|Google's in-house [[Waymo|automated car]]]]
In June 2015, Google confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date. Eight involved rear-end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light, in two of which the vehicle was side-swiped by another driver, one in which another driver rolled a stop sign, and one where a driver was controlling the car manually.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-google-cars-20150603-story.html|title=Google founder defends accident records of self-driving cars|date=3 June 2015|agency=[[Associated Press]]|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=1 July 2016}}</ref> In July 2015, three employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear-ended by a car whose driver failed to brake. This was the first collision that resulted in injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.govtech.com/transportation/Google-Autonomous-Car-Experiences-Another-Crash.html|title=Google Autonomous Car Experiences Another Crash|first=Vishal|last=Mathur|date=17 July 2015|access-date=18 July 2015|newspaper=[[Government Technology]]}}</ref>

According to Google Waymo's accident reports as of early 2016, their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions, of which other drivers were at fault 13 times, although in 2016 the car's software caused a crash.<ref name="WashingtonPost">{{cite news |date=29 February 2016 |title=For the first time, Google's self-driving car takes some blame for a crash |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2016/02/29/for-the-first-time-googles-self-driving-car-takes-some-blame-for-a-crash/ |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> On 14 February 2016 a Google vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google stated, "In this case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car hadn't moved, there wouldn't have been a collision."<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/02/googles-self-driving-car-may-caused-first-crash/|title=Google's Self-Driving Car Caused Its First Crash|magazine=Wired|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-google-self-driving-car-bus-collision-20160229-story.html|title=Passenger bus teaches Google robot car a lesson|date=29 February 2016|newspaper=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. No injuries were reported.<ref name="WashingtonPost" />

=== Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) ===
In March 2018, [[Death of Elaine Herzberg|Elaine Herzberg]] died after she was hit by an AC tested by [[Uber|Uber's]] Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) in Arizona. A safety driver was in the car. Herzberg was crossing the road about 400 feet from an intersection.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bensinger|first1=Greg|last2=Higgins|first2=Tim|title=Video Shows Moments Before Uber Robot Car Rammed into Pedestrian|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/video-shows-final-seconds-before-fatal-uber-self-driving-car-crash-1521673182|access-date=25 March 2018|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=22 March 2018}}</ref> Some experts said a human driver could have avoided the crash.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-22/video-said-to-show-failure-of-uber-s-tech-in-fatal-arizona-crash|title=Human Driver Could Have Avoided Fatal Uber Crash, Experts Say|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=22 March 2018}}</ref> Arizona governor [[Doug Ducey]] suspended the company's ability to test its ACs citing an "unquestionable failure" of Uber to protect public safety.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|title=Governor Ducey suspends Uber from automated vehicle testing|url=https://www.abc15.com/news/region-phoenix-metro/central-phoenix/governor-ducey-suspends-uber-from-autonomous-vehicle-testing|access-date=27 March 2018|publisher=[[KNXV-TV]]|date=27 March 2018}}</ref> Uber also stopped testing in California until receiving a new permit in 2020.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/business/article/Uber-pulls-out-of-all-self-driving-car-testing-in-12785490.php | title=Uber puts the brakes on testing robot cars in California after Arizona fatality | first=Carolyn | last=Said | date=27 March 2018 | newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle | access-date=8 April 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 February 2020 |title=Uber self-driving cars allowed back on California roads |language=en-GB |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51393808 |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref>

NTSB's final report determined that the immediate cause of the accident was that safety driver Rafaela Vasquez failed to monitor the road, because she was distracted by her phone, but that Uber's "inadequate safety culture" contributed. The report noted that the victim had "a very high level" of [[methamphetamine]] in her body.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 November 2019 |title=Uber back-up driver faulted in fatal autonomous car crash |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/6d0c5544-0afb-11ea-bb52-34c8d9dc6d84 |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref> The board called on federal regulators to carry out a review before allowing automated test vehicles to operate on public roads.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Inadequate Safety Culture' Contributed to Uber Automated Test Vehicle Crash – NTSB Calls for Federal Review Process for Automated Vehicle Testing on Public Roads |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/news/press-releases/Pages/NR20191119c.aspx |access-date=24 October 2022 |website=ntsb.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Smiley |first=Lauren |title='I'm the Operator': The Aftermath of a Self-Driving Tragedy |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/uber-self-driving-car-fatal-crash/ |access-date=24 October 2022 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref>

In September 2020, Vasquez pled guilty to endangerment and was sentenced to three years' probation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vanek |first=Corina |date=July 21, 2023 |title=Arizona driver in fatal autonomous Uber crash in 2018 pleads guilty, sentenced to probation |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2023/07/28/rafaela-vasquez-pleads-guilty-in-in-fatal-uber-self-driving-crash-killed-pedestrian-elaine-herzberg/70488361007/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=The Arizona Republic |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=BilleaudAP />

=== NIO Navigate on Pilot ===
On 12 August 2021, a 31-year-old Chinese man was killed after his [[NIO ES8]] collided with a construction vehicle.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} NIO's self-driving feature was in beta and could not deal with static obstacles.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rearick |first1=Brenden |date=16 August 2021 |title=NIO Stock: 10 Things to Know About the Fatal Crash Dragging Down Nio Today |url=https://investorplace.com/2021/08/nio-stock-10-things-to-know-about-the-fatal-crash-dragging-down-nio-today/ |access-date=17 February 2022 |website=InvestorPlace |language=en-US}}</ref> The vehicle's manual clearly stated that the driver must take over near construction sites. Lawyers of the deceased's family questioned NIO's private access to the vehicle, which they argued did not guarantee the integrity of the data.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ruffo |first=Gustavo Henrique |date=17 August 2021 |title=Nio's Autopilot, NOP, Faces Intense Scrutiny With First Fatal Crash in China |url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/nio-s-autopilot-nop-faces-intense-scrutiny-with-first-fatal-crash-in-china-167486.html |access-date=17 February 2022 |website=autoevolution |language=en}}</ref>

=== Pony.ai ===
In November 2021, the [[California Department of Motor Vehicles]] (DMV) notified [[Pony.ai]] that it was suspending its testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on 28 October.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rita Liao |date=14 December 2021 |title=California suspends Pony.ai driverless test permit after crash |url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/12/14/pony-ai-suspension-driverless-pilot-california/ |access-date=23 April 2022 |work=[[TechCrunch]]}}</ref> In May 2022, DMV revoked Pony.ai's permit for failing to monitor the driving records of its safety drivers.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rebecca Bellan |date=25 May 2022 |title=Pony.ai loses permit to test autonomous vehicles with driver in California |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/05/24/pony-ai-loses-permit-to-test-autonomous-vehicles-with-driver-in-california/ |access-date=30 May 2022 |work=[[TechCrunch]]}}</ref>

=== Cruise ===
{{See also|Cruise (autonomous vehicle)#Incidents}}
In April 2022, [[Cruise (autonomous vehicle)|Cruise]]'s testing vehicle was reported to have blocked a [[fire engine]] on emergency call, and sparked questions about its ability to handle unexpected circumstances.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Aarian Marshall |date=27 May 2022 |title=An Autonomous Car Blocked a Fire Truck Responding to an Emergency |url=https://www.wired.com/story/cruise-fire-truck-block-san-francisco-autonomous-vehicles/ |access-date=30 May 2022 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Graham Hope |date=29 May 2022 |title=GM's Cruise Autonomous Car Blocks Fire Truck on Emergency Call |url=https://www.iotworldtoday.com/2022/05/29/gms-cruise-autonomous-car-blocks-fire-truck-on-emergency-call/ |access-date=30 May 2022 |work=IoT World Today}}</ref>

=== Ford ===
In February 2024, a driver using the Ford BlueCruise hands-free driving feature struck and killed the driver of a stationary car with no lights on in the middle lane of a freeway in Texas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moreno |first=Julie |date=2024-03-15 |title=NTSB investigating deadly crash in San Antonio involving a semi-autonomous vehicle |url=https://www.ksat.com/news/local/2024/03/15/ntsb-investigating-deadly-crash-in-san-antonio-involving-a-semi-autonomous-vehicle/ |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=KSAT |language=en}}</ref>

In March 2024, a drunk driver who was speeding, holding her cell phone, and using BlueCruise on a Pennsylvania freeway struck and killed two people who had been driving two cars.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |last=Torrejón |first=Rodrigo |date=2024-09-03 |title=Woman who used hands-free driving system in fatal DUI crash on I-95 turns herself in to face charges, police say |url=https://www.inquirer.com/crime/dimple-patel-dui-crash-195-philadelphia-charges-20240903.html |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=Philadelphia Inquirer |language=en}}</ref> The first car had become disabled and was on the left shoulder with part of the car in the left driving lane.<ref name=":21" /> The second driver had parked his car behind the first car presumably to help the first driver.<ref name=":21" />

The NTSB is investigating both incidents.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bell |first=Sebastien |date=March 18, 2024 |title=Feds Investigate Ford BlueCruise's Role In Deadly Mustang Mach-E Crash |url=https://www.carscoops.com/2024/03/feds-investigate-bluecruises-involvement-in-fatal-ford-mustang-mach-e-crash/ |access-date=September 8, 2024 |website=Carscoops}}</ref>

=== Total incidents ===
The NHTSA began mandating incident reports from autonomous vehicle companies in June 2021. Some reports cite incidents from as early as August 2019, with current data available through June 17, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Standing General Order on Crash Reporting {{!}} NHTSA |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/laws-regulations/standing-general-order-crash-reporting |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=www.nhtsa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

There have been a total of 3,979 autonomous vehicle incidents (both ADS and ADAS) reported during this timeframe. 2,146 of those incidents (53.9%) involved Tesla vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Data Analysis: Self-Driving Car Accidents [2019-2024] |url=https://www.craftlawfirm.com/autonomous-vehicle-accidents-2019-2024-crash-data/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Craft Law Firm |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Public opinion surveys ==

=== 2010s ===
In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers, 49% said they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsroom.accenture.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=5146|title=Consumers in US and UK Frustrated with Intelligent Devices That Frequently Crash or Freeze, New Accenture Survey Finds|date=10 October 2011|publisher=Accenture|access-date=30 June 2013}}</ref>

A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners found 37% who initially said they would be interested in purchasing a "fully autonomous car". However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would cost US$3,000 more.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-13746_7-57422698-48/many-car-buyers-show-interest-in-autonomous-car-tech/|title=Many car buyers show interest in autonomous car tech|last=Yvkoff|first=Liane|date=27 April 2012|publisher=CNET|access-date=30 June 2013}}</ref>

In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers, 22% had a positive attitude, 10% were undecided, 44% were skeptical and 24% were hostile.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motorvision.de/service-ratgeber/selbstfahrende-autos-deutschland-22-prozent-deutschen-grosse-akzeptanz-roboterfahrzeuge-39281.html|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515125001/http://www.motorvision.de/service-ratgeber/selbstfahrende-autos-deutschland-22-prozent-deutschen-grosse-akzeptanz-roboterfahrzeuge-39281.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2016|title=Große Akzeptanz für selbstfahrende Autos in Deutschland|date=9 October 2012|publisher=motorvision.de|access-date=6 September 2013}}</ref>

A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries found 57% "stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the most willing to trust automated technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.autosphere.ca/collisionmanagement/2013/05/22/autonomous-cars-found-trustworthy-in-global-study/|title=Autonomous Cars Found Trustworthy in Global Study|date=22 May 2013|publisher=autosphere.ca|access-date=6 September 2013}}</ref>

In a 2014 US telephone survey, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insurance.com/about-us/news-and-events/2014/07/autonomous-cars-bring-em-on-drivers-say-in-insurance.com-survey.html|title=Autonomous cars: Bring 'em on, drivers say in Insurance.com survey|date=28 July 2014|website=Insurance.com|access-date=29 July 2014}}</ref>

In 2015, a survey of 5,000 people from 109 countries reported that average respondents found manual driving the most enjoyable. 22% did not want to pay more money for autonomy. Respondents were found to be most concerned about hacking/misuse, and were also concerned about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries were less comfortable with their vehicle sharing data.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last1=Kyriakidis|first1=M.|last2=Happee|first2=R.|last3=De Winter|first3=J. C. F.|year=2015|title=Public opinion on automated driving: Results of an international questionnaire among 5,000 respondents|journal=Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour|volume=32|pages=127–140|doi=10.1016/j.trf.2015.04.014|bibcode=2015TRPF...32..127K |s2cid=2071964 |url=https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%3Aa779b2bc-dcca-4f8c-b8e0-8209791a3146/datastream/OBJ/download}}</ref> The survey reported consumer interest in purchasing an AC, stating that 37% of surveyed current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested.<ref name=":4" />

In 2016, a survey of 1,603 people in Germany that controlled for age, gender, and education reported that men felt less anxiety and more enthusiasm, whereas women showed the opposite. The difference was pronounced between young men and women and decreased with age.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hohenberger|first1=C.|last2=Spörrle|first2=M.|last3=Welpe|first3=I. M.|year=2016|title=How and why do men and women differ in their willingness to use automated cars? The influence of emotions across different age groups|journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice|volume=94|pages=374–385|doi=10.1016/j.tra.2016.09.022|bibcode=2016TRPA...94..374H |url=http://mediatum.ub.tum.de/node?id=1340486 }}</ref>

In a 2016 US survey of 1,584 people, "66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People were worried about safety and hacking risk. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees saw no advantages in this new kind of cars.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/22/autonomous-cars-seen-as-smarter-than-human-drivers/|title=Autonomous cars seen as smarter than human drivers|first=Kristen|last=Hall-Geisler|work=[[TechCrunch]]|date=22 December 2016|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref>

In a 2017 survey of 4,135 US adults found that many Americans anticipated significant impacts from various automation technologies including the widespread adoption of automated vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2017/10/04/automation-in-everyday-life/|title=Automation in Everyday Life|last1=Smith|first1=Aaron|last2=Anderson|first2=Monica |date=4 October 2017}}</ref>

In 2019, results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published. The questionnaire was termed the autonomous vehicle acceptance model (AVAM), including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of various automation levels. Users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use autonomous vehicles. Additionally, partial autonomy (regardless of level) was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement (usage of hands, feet and eyes) than full autonomy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hewitt |first1=Charlie |last2=Politis |first2=Ioannis |last3=Amanatidis |first3=Theocharis |last4=Sarkar |first4=Advait |title=Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces |chapter=Assessing public perception of self-driving cars: The autonomous vehicle acceptance model |year=2019 |pages=518–527 |doi=10.1145/3301275.3302268 |publisher=ACM Press|isbn=9781450362726 |s2cid=67773581 }}</ref>

=== In the 2020s ===
In 2022, a survey reported that only a quarter (27%) of the world's population would feel safe in self-driving cars.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 November 2022 |title=Majority of world's population feel self-driving cars are unsafe |url=https://www.lrfoundation.org.uk/en/news/majority-of-worlds-population-feel-self-driving-cars-are-unsafe/ |website=[[Lloyd's Register|Lloyd's Register Foundation]] |access-date=4 December 2022 }}</ref>

In 2024, a study by Saravanos et al.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saravanos |first1=Antonios |last2=Pissadaki |first2=Eleftheria K. |last3=Singh |first3=Wayne S. |last4=Delfino |first4=Donatella |date=April 2024 |title=Gauging Public Acceptance of Conditionally Automated Vehicles in the United States |journal=Smart Cities |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=913–931 |doi=10.3390/smartcities7020038 |doi-access=free |issn=2624-6511|arxiv=2402.11444 }}</ref> at New York University reported that 87% of their respondents (from a sample of 358) believed that conditionally automated cars (at Level 3) would be easy to use.

== Regulation ==
{{Main|Regulation of self-driving cars}}
{{See also|Regulation of algorithms}}
The regulation of autonomous cars concerns liability, approvals, and international conventions.

In the 2010s, researchers openly worried that delayed regulations could delay deployment.<ref name="law journal">{{cite journal|last1=Brodsky|first1=Jessica|title=Autonomous Vehicle Regulation: How an Uncertain Legal Landscape May Hit the Brakes on Self-Driving Cars|journal=Berkeley Technology Law Journal|year=2016|volume=31|issue=Annual Review 2016|pages=851–878|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/berktech31&div=28&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals#|access-date=29 November 2017}}</ref> In 2020, [[Regulation of self-driving cars#UNECE WP.29 GRVA|UNECE WP.29 GRVA]] was issued to address regulation of Level 3 automated driving.

== Commercialization ==
{{See also|History of self-driving cars#The 2020s}}
Vehicles operating below Level 5 still offer many advantages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hancock|first1=P. A.|last2=Nourbakhsh|first2=Illah|last3=Stewart|first3=Jack|date=16 April 2019|title=On the future of transportation in an era of automated and autonomous vehicles|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=116|issue=16|pages=7684–7691|doi=10.1073/pnas.1805770115|issn=0027-8424|pmc=6475395|pmid=30642956|bibcode=2019PNAS..116.7684H |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{As of|2023}} most commercially available ADAS vehicles are SAE Level 2. A couple of companies reached higher levels, but only in restricted (geofenced) locations.<ref name="kbb-sdc">{{Cite web |date=2023-03-03 |title=Self-Driving Cars: Everything You Need To Know |url=https://www.kbb.com/car-advice/self-driving-cars/ |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=Kelley Blue Book |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Level 2 – Partial Automation ===
{{See also|Lane centering#Sample of level 2 automated cars|List of self-driving system suppliers#Date of first public road driverless operation}}

SAE Level 2 features are available as part of the ADAS systems in many vehicles. In the US, 50% of new cars provide driver assistance for both steering and speed.<ref>How Much Automation Does Your Car Really Have? Jeff S. Bartlett, November 4, 2021 https://www.consumerreports.org/cars/automotive-technology/how-much-automation-does-your-car-really-have-level-2-a3543419955/</ref>

[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] started offering BlueCruise service on certain vehicles in 2022; the system is named ActiveGlide in [[Lincoln Motor Company|Lincoln]] vehicles. The system provided features such as lane centering, street sign recognition, and hands-free highway driving on more than 130,000 miles of divided highways. The 2022 1.2 version added features including hands-free lane changing, in-lane repositioning, and predictive speed assist.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=Ford BlueCruise Version 1.2 Hands-Off Review: More Automation, Improved Operation |url=https://www.motortrend.com/reviews/ford-bluecruise-version-1-2-first-drive-review/ |access-date=9 April 2023 |website=MotorTrend |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ford updates its BlueCruise driver assist with hands-free lane changing and more |url=https://www.engadget.com/ford-updates-its-blue-cruise-driver-assist-with-hands-free-lane-changing-and-more-204022978.html |access-date=9 April 2023 |website=Engadget |date=9 September 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> In April 2023 BlueCruise was approved in the UK for use on certain motorways, starting with 2023 models of Ford's electric [[Ford Mustang Mach-E|Mustang Mach-E]] SUV.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 April 2023 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-65272929 |title=Ford launches hands-free driving on UK motorways |website=[[BBC]] |access-date=18 April 2023 }}</ref>

[[Tesla Autopilot|Tesla's Autopilot]] and its Full Self-Driving (FSD) ADAS suites are available on all Tesla cars since 2016. FSD offers highway and street driving (without geofencing), navigation/turn management, steering, and dynamic cruise control, collision avoidance, lane-keeping/switching, emergency braking, obstacle avoidance, but still requires the driver to remain ready to control the vehicle at any moment. Its driver management system combines eye tracking with monitoring pressure on the steering wheel to ensure that drives are both eyes on and hands on.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stumpf|first=Rob|title=Tesla Admits Current "Full Self-Driving Beta" Will Always Be a Level 2 System: Emails|url=https://www.thedrive.com/tech/39647/tesla-admits-current-full-self-driving-beta-will-always-be-a-level-2-system-emails|access-date=29 August 2021|website=The Drive|date=8 March 2021 }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Lambert |first=Fred |date=2024-01-22 |title=Tesla finally releases FSD v12, its last hope for self-driving |url=https://electrek.co/2024/01/22/tesla-releases-fsd-v12-last-hope-self-driving/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=Electrek |language=en-US}}</ref>

Tesla's FSD rewrite V12 (released in March 2024) uses a single deep learning transformer model for all aspects of perception, monitoring, and control.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Templeton |first=Brad |date=April 18, 2024 |title=Tesla, Waymo, Nuro, Zoox And Many Others Embrace New AI To Drive |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bradtempleton/2024/04/18/tesla-waymo-nuro-zoox-and-many-others-embrace-new-ai-to-drive/ |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Mengdan |first=Shen |date=April 3, 2024 |title=Tesla's FSD enters a new phase as self-driving competition intensifies |url=https://www.shine.cn/biz/auto/2404035023/ |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=SHINE |language=en}}</ref> It relies on its eight cameras for its vision-only perception system, without use of LiDAR, radar, or ultrasound.<ref name=":19" /> As of January 2024, Tesla has not initiated requests for Level 3 status for its systems and has not disclosed its reason for not doing so.<ref name=":12" />

==== Development ====
[[General Motors]] is developing the "Ultra Cruise" ADAS system, that will be a dramatic improvement over their current "Super Cruise" system. Ultra Cruise will cover "95 percent" of driving scenarios on 2 million miles of roads in the US, according to the company. The system hardware in and around the car includes multiple cameras, short- and long-range radar, and a LiDAR sensor, and will be powered by the [[Qualcomm Snapdragon]] Ride Platform. The luxury [[Cadillac Celestiq]] electric vehicle will be one of the first vehicles to feature Ultra Cruise.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hawkins |first=Andrew |date=7 March 2023 |title=GM's Ultra Cruise will use radar, camera, and lidar to enable hands-free driving |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/3/7/23627656/gm-ultra-cruise-sensor-radar-lidar-hands-free |access-date=9 April 2023 |website=[[The Verge]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Regulation ====
Europe is developing a new "Driver Control Assistance Systems" (DCAS) level 2 regulation to no longer limit the use of lane changing systems to [[motorway|roads with 2 lanes and a physical separation from traffic in the opposite direction]].<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://unece.org/media/press/387961 |title=New UN regulation paves the way for the roll-out of additional driver assistance systems |website=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe |date=1 February 2024 |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ccam.eu/paving-the-way-to-driving-automation-in-eu/ |title=Paving the way to driving automation in EU |website=Connected Cooperative & Automated Mobility |date=19 January 2023 |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref>

China forbid the use of misleading advertising terms. Updates to vehicles already delivered to customers requires regulatory approval.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://etsc.eu/china-bans-public-beta-testing-of-automated-driving-systems/ |title=China bans public beta testing of automated driving systems |website=European Transport Safety Council |date=21 April 2025 |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref>

The US required for towed cars a report to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). New rule limit those reports to car crashes and incidents with death, individual being transported to a hospital for medical treatment, struck vulnerable road user, or airbag deployment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://etsc.eu/us-weakens-crash-reporting-requirements-for-vehicles-with-level-2-assisted-driving-systems/ |title=US weakens crash reporting requirements for vehicles with Level 2 assisted driving systems |website=European Transport Safety Council |date=28 April 2025 |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref>

=== Level 3 – Conditional Automation ===
{{As of|2024|April}}, two car manufacturers have sold or leased Level 3 cars: Honda in Japan, and Mercedes in Germany, Nevada and California.<ref name=":14" />

Mercedes Drive Pilot has been available on the EQS and S-class sedan in Germany since 2022, and in California and Nevada since 2023.<ref name=":13" /> A subscription costs between €5,000 and €7,000 for three years in Germany and $2,500 for one year in the United States.<ref name=":16" /> Drive Pilot can only be used when the vehicle is traveling under {{Convert|40|mph|kph}}, there is a vehicle in front, readable line markings, during the day, clear weather, and on freeways mapped by Mercedes down to the centimeter (100,000 miles in California).<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Rachyl |date=April 18, 2024 |title=Exclusive: Mercedes becomes the first automaker to sell autonomous cars in the U.S. that don't come with a requirement that drivers watch the road |url=https://fortune.com/2024/04/18/mercedes-self-driving-autonomous-cars-california-nevada-level-3-drive-pilot/ |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> As of April 2024, one Mercedes vehicle with this capability has been sold in California.<ref name=":16" />

==== Development ====
[[Honda]] continued to enhance its Level 3 technology.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 December 2022 |title=Honda Unveils Next-generation Technologies of Honda SENSING 360 and Honda SENSING Elite |url=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2022/c221201eng.html?from=RSS&from=newsrelease_area |website=[[Honda]] |access-date=1 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1 December 2022 |url=https://jp.reuters.com/article/honda-autonomous/honda-to-develop-advanced-level-3-self-driving-technology-by-2029-idUSL4N32Q0T3 |title=Honda to develop advanced level 3 self-driving technology by 2029 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=1 December 2022}}</ref> As of 2023, 80 vehicles with Level 3 support had been sold.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Christopher |last=Smith |date=28 January 2022 |title=Level 3 Automated Driving Tech Has Major Limitations: Report |url=https://www.motor1.com/news/563945/level3-autonomous-tech-real-world/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=Motor1.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Mercedes-Benz]] received authorization in early 2023 to pilot its Level 3 software in Las Vegas.<ref name = "Mercedes-Benz 2023">{{cite web | url=https://www.autonomousvehicleinternational.com/news/adas/mercedes-benz-certifies-drive-pilot-for-use-in-nevada-becoming-the-first-l3-system-approved-for-us-highways.html |title=Mercedes-Benz Drive Pilot certified for use in Nevada – first L3 system approved for US highways | date= 27 January 2023 }}</ref> California also authorized Drive Pilot in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mercedes Drive Pilot Level 3 ADAS Approved For Use In California |url=https://insideevs.com/news/671349/mercedes-drive-pilot-level-3-adas-approved-use-california/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=InsideEVs |language=en|first=
Dan |last=Mihalascu |date=9 June 2023}}</ref>

[[BMW]] commercialized its AC in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|author=Angel Sergeev |date=31 March 2017 |url=https://www.motor1.com/news/147074/bmw-fully-autonomous-car-2021/|title=BMW Details Plan For Fully Automated Driving By 2021 |website=Motor1.com }}</ref> In 2023 BMW stated that its Level-3 technology was nearing release. It would be the second manufacturer to deliver Level-3 technology, but the only one with a Level 3 technology which works [[Automotive night vision|in the dark]].<ref>Level 3 highly automated driving available in the new BMW 7 Series from next spring, 10.11.2023, Press Release, Christophe Koenig, BMW Group 
https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/global/article/detail/T0438214EN/level-3-highly-automated-driving-available-in-the-new-bmw-7-series-from-next-spring</ref>

In 2023, in China, [[IM Motors]], [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]], and [[BMW]] obtained authorization to test vehicles with Level 3 systems on motorways.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cnevpost.com/2023/12/18/im-motors-permit-test-l3-self-driving-shanghai/|title=IM Motors gets permit to test L3 self-driving vehicles in Shanghai|first=Lei|last=Kang/CnEVPost|date=18 December 2023|website=CnEVPost}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://breakingthenews.net/Article/Mercedes-to-test-self-driving-cars-in-Beijing/61161747|title=Breaking The News|website=breakingthenews.net}}</ref>

In September 2021, [[Stellantis]] presented its findings from its Level 3 pilot testing on Italian highways. Stellantis's Highway Chauffeur claimed Level 3 capabilities, as tested on the [[Maserati Ghibli (M157)|Maserati Ghibli]] and [[Fiat 500X]] prototypes.<ref>{{cite news|date=17 September 2021 |author=Paul Myles |title=Stellantis Shows Off its Level 3 Technology |url=https://www.tu-auto.com/stellantis-shows-off-its-level-3-technology/ |work=[[Informa]] |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>

[[Polestar]], a [[Volvo Cars]]' brand, announced in January 2022 its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the Polestar 3 SUV, a [[Volvo XC90]] successor, with technologies from [[Luminar Technologies]], [[Nvidia]], and Zenseact.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 January 2022 |author=Jay Ramey |title=Polestar 3 with Level 3 Autonomous Tech on the Way |url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a38737805/polestar-3-level-3-autonomous-ride-pilot/
|website=Autoweek |access-date=31 May 2022 }}</ref>

In January 2022, [[Bosch (company)|Bosch]] and the [[Volkswagen Group]] subsidiary [[CARIAD]] released a collaboration for autonomous driving up to Level 3. This joint development targets Level 4 capabilities.<ref>{{cite news|date=26 January 2022 |author=hannovermesse |title=Bosch and CARIAD advance automated driving |url=https://www.hannovermesse.de/en/news/news-articles/bosch-and-cariad-advance-automated-driving |website=hannovermesse |access-date=26 Jan 2022}}</ref>

[[Hyundai Motor Company]] is enhancing cybersecurity of [[connected car]]s to offer a Level 3 self-driving [[Genesis G90]].<ref>{{cite news|date=16 February 2022 |author1=Seo Jin-woo |author2=Jung You-jung |author3=Lee Ha-yeon |title=Korean firms enhance car cybersecurity before Level 3 autonomous car releases |url=https://pulsenews.co.kr/view.php?year=2022&no=147214 |work=Pulse by [[Maeil Business Newspaper]] |access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref> Kia and Hyundai Korean car makers delayed their Level 3 plans, and will not deliver Level 3 vehicles in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Herh |first=Michael |date=2023-12-01 |title=Hyundai Motor Puts Level 3 Autonomous Driving Technology on Back Burner |url=https://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=206898 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=Businesskorea |language=ko}}</ref>

=== Level 4 – High Automation ===
[[Waymo]] offers [[robotaxi]] services in parts of Arizona (Phoenix) and California (San Francisco and Los Angeles), as fully autonomous vehicles without safety drivers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ludlow |first=Edward |date=2024-04-15 |title=Waymo, Cruise and Zoox Inch Forward Ahead of Tesla Joining Robotaxi Race |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2024-04-15/waymo-cruise-and-zoox-inch-forward-ahead-of-tesla-joining-robotaxi-race |access-date=2024-04-30 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref>

In April 2023 in Japan, a Level 4 protocol became part of the amended Road Traffic Act.<ref>{{cite news|date=1 April 2023 |url=https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/general-news/20230401-100936/ |title=Level 4 Autonomous Driving Allowed in Japan |work=[[Yomiuri Shimbun]] |access-date=3 April 2023 }}</ref> ZEN drive Pilot Level 4 made by [[National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology|AIST]] operates there.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 March 2023 |title=国内初！自動運転車に対するレベル4の認可を取得しました |trans-title=Domestically the first! Approved as Level 4 self-driving car |url=https://www.meti.go.jp/press/2022/03/20230331002/20230331002.html |website=[[Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|METI, Japan]] |access-date=3 April 2023}}</ref>

==== Development ====

{{See also|Robotaxi#History}}

In July 2020, [[Toyota]] started public demonstration rides on [[Lexus LS]] (fifth generation) based TRI-P4 with Level 4 capability.<ref>{{Cite press release |url=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/30344967.html |date=24 October 2019 |title=Toyota to Offer Rides in SAE Level-4 Automated Vehicles on Public Roads in Japan Next Summer |publisher=[[Toyota]] |access-date=17 March 2022}}</ref> In August 2021, Toyota operated a potentially Level 4 service using [[Toyota concept vehicles (2010–2019)#e-Palette|e-Palette]] around the [[2020 Summer Olympics|Tokyo 2020 Olympic]] Village.<ref name="bloomberg_2021-08">{{cite news|date=2 August 2021 |author=River Davis |title=Hyperdrive Daily: The Driverless Shuttle Helping Toyota Win Gold |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2021-08-02/toyota-seizes-olympic-glory-by-shuttling-athletes-autonomously |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |access-date=7 November 2021 }}</ref>

In September 2020, [[Mercedes-Benz]] introduced world's first commercial Level 4 [[Automated Valet Parking]] (AVP) system named ''Intelligent Park Pilot'' for its new [[Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W223)|S-Class]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2 September 2020 |title=Automotive luxury experienced in a completely new way – The main points of the new Mercedes-Benz S-Class at a glance |url=https://media.mercedes-benz.com/article/92eb97a3-3477-4ca1-acf1-32ee0e07d646 |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=Mercedes me media |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bosch – Stuttgart Airport Set to Welcome Fully Automated and Driverless Parking |url=https://iot-automotive.news/bosch-stuttgart-airport-set-to-welcome-fully-automated-and-driverless-parking/ |website=IoT Automotive News |access-date=21 May 2022 }}</ref> In November 2022, Germany’s Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA) approved the system for use at [[Stuttgart Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-11-30 |title=Mercedes-Benz and Bosch driverless parking system: Approved for commercial use |url=https://group.mercedes-benz.com/innovation/product-innovation/autonomous-driving/intelligent-park-pilot.html |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=Mercedes-Benz Group |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Cruise, General Motors, and Honda started a joint testing programme, using Cruise AV.<ref>{{Cite press release |url=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2021/c210908eng.html |date=8 September 2021 |title=Honda to Start Testing Program in September Toward Launch of Autonomous Vehicle Mobility Service Business in Japan |publisher=[[Honda]] |access-date=16 March 2022}}</ref> In 2023, the Origin was put on indefinite hold following Cruise's loss of its operating permit.<ref>{{Cite news |last=MILLER |first=CALEB |date=November 29, 2023 |title=GM's Self-Driving Cruise Origin Indefinitely Delayed Amid Major Setbacks |url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a45989501/gm-self-driving-cruise-origin-delayed/ |work=[[Car and Driver]]}}</ref>

In January 2023, Holon announced an autonomous shuttle during the 2023 [[Consumer Electronics Show]] (CES). The company claimed that the vehicle is the world's first Level 4 shuttle built to automotive standard.<ref>{{cite news|date=5 January 2022 |author=Anthony James |title=New Benteler brand Holon presents world's first autonomous mover built to automotive standards |url=https://www.autonomousvehicleinternational.com/news/mobility-solutions/new-benteler-brand-holon-presents-worlds-first-autonomous-mover-built-to-automotive-standards.html |work=ADAS & Autonomous Vehicle International |access-date=21 January 2023 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Autopilot]]
* [[Driving]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Commons category-inline|Autonomous automobiles}}
{{Prone to spam|date=December 2014}} 
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DW2QAAAAQBAJ}}|title=Gridlock: Why We're Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It|last=O'Toole|first=Randal|date=18 January 2010|publisher=Cato Institute|isbn=978-1-935308-24-9}}
* {{cite book|url=http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/publications/thesis/online/IM110982.pdf|title=A Simulated Autonomous Car|last=Macdonald|first=Iain David Graham|publisher=The University of Edinburgh|year=2011|type=thesis|access-date=17 April 2013}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/520431/driverless-cars-are-further-away-than-you-think/|title=The Future of Self-driving Cars|last=Knight|first=Will|date=22 October 2013|website=MIT Technology Review|access-date=22 July 2016}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Taiebat|first1=Morteza|last2=Brown|first2=Austin|last3=Safford|first3=Hannah|last4=Qu|first4=Shen|last5=Xu|first5=Ming|year=2019|title=A Review on Energy, Environmental, and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles.|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=52|issue=20|pages=11449–11465|doi=10.1021/acs.est.8b00127|pmid=30192527|arxiv=1901.10581|bibcode=2019arXiv190110581T|s2cid=52174043}}
* {{cite report|url=http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_lrd_069.pdf|title=A Look at the Legal Environment for Driverless Vehicles|last=Glancy|first=Dorothy|publisher=Transportation Research Board|location=Washington, DC|volume=69|isbn=978-0-309-37501-6|access-date=22 July 2016|series=National Cooperative Highway Research Program Legal Research Digest|year=2016}}
* {{cite web|url=http://theloadstar.co.uk/the-driving-forces-behind-what-would-be-the-next-revolution-in-the-haulage-sector/|title=The driving forces behind what would be the next revolution in the haulage sector|last=Newbold|first=Richard|date=17 June 2015|website=The Loadstar|access-date=22 July 2016}}
* {{cite web|url=http://recode.net/2015/10/27/meet-the-companies-building-self-driving-cars-for-google-and-tesla-and-maybe-apple/|title=Meet the Companies Building Self-Driving Cars for Google and Tesla (And Maybe Apple)|last1=Bergen|first1=Mark|date=27 October 2015|website=re/code}}
* {{cite web|url=http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/57000/57000/57076/Review_FMVSS_AV_Scan.pdf|title=Review of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) for Automated Vehicles: Identifying potential barriers and challenges for the certification of automated vehicles using existing FMVSS|author=John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center|date=March 2016|website=National Transportation Library|publisher=[[US Department of Transportation]]|author-link=John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center|access-date=6 April 2016|archive-date=16 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616204001/https://ntl.bts.gov/lib/57000/57000/57076/Review_FMVSS_AV_Scan.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://knowledgecenter.csg.org/kc/system/files/CR_automomous.pdf|title=State Laws on Autonomous Vehicles|last=Slone|first=Sean|date=August 2016|website=Capitol Research – Transportation Policy|publisher=[[Council of State Governments]]|access-date=28 September 2016|archive-date=28 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228043344/http://knowledgecenter.csg.org/kc/system/files/CR_automomous.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2015/07/31/427990392/remembering-when-driverless-elevators-drew-skepticism|title=Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism|first=Steve|last=Henn|date=31 July 2015}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR400/RR443-2/RAND_RR443-2.pdf|title=Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers|first=James M.|last=Anderson|display-authors=etal|year=2016|publisher=[[RAND Corporation]]}}
*{{Cite journal |date=2014 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Gereon |editor2-last=Beiker |editor2-first=Sven |title=Road Vehicle Automation |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-05990-7 |journal=Lecture Notes in Mobility |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-05990-7 |isbn=978-3-319-05989-1 |issn=2196-5544|url-access=subscription }} 
**{{Cite journal |date=2015 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Gereon |editor2-last=Beiker |editor2-first=Sven |title=Road Vehicle Automation 2 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-19078-5 |journal=Lecture Notes in Mobility |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-19078-5 |isbn=978-3-319-19077-8 |issn=2196-5544|url-access=subscription }}
** {{Cite journal |date=2016 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Gereon |editor2-last=Beiker |editor2-first=Sven |title=Road Vehicle Automation 3 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-40503-2 |journal=Lecture Notes in Mobility |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-40503-2 |isbn=978-3-319-40502-5 |issn=2196-5544|url-access=subscription }}
** {{Cite journal |date=2018 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Gereon |editor2-last=Beiker |editor2-first=Sven |title=Road Vehicle Automation 4 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-60934-8 |journal=Lecture Notes in Mobility |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-60934-8 |isbn=978-3-319-60933-1 |issn=2196-5544|url-access=subscription }}
** {{Cite journal |date=2019 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Gereon |editor2-last=Beiker |editor2-first=Sven |title=Road Vehicle Automation 5 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-94896-6 |journal=Lecture Notes in Mobility |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-94896-6 |isbn=978-3-319-94895-9 |s2cid=168659939 |issn=2196-5544|url-access=subscription }}
** {{Cite journal |date=2019 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Gereon |editor2-last=Beiker |editor2-first=Sven |title=Road Vehicle Automation 6 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-22933-7 |journal=Lecture Notes in Mobility |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-22933-7 |isbn=978-3-030-22932-0 |issn=2196-5544|url-access=subscription }}
These books are based on presentations and discussions at the Automated Vehicles Symposium organized annually by [[Transportation Research Board|TRB]] and [[Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International|AUVSI]].
* {{cite web|url=https://journals.sas.ac.uk/deeslr/issue/view/528|title=Autonomous vehicles – who will be liable for accidents?|first=Roger|last=Kemp|year=2018|publisher=[15 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review (2018) 33 – 47]}}
{{Refend}}
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