View source for Standard German phonology

{{short description|Standard pronunciation of the German language}}
{{WikiIPA|German|Standard German}}
{{IPA notice}}
The '''phonology of Standard German''' is the standard pronunciation or accent of the [[German language]]. It deals with current [[phonology]] and [[phonetics]] as well as with [[History of German|historical developments]] thereof as well as the geographical variants and the influence of [[German dialects]].

While the spelling of German is officially standardised by an international organisation (the [[Council for German Orthography]]) the pronunciation has no official standard and relies on a ''de facto'' standard documented in reference works such as {{lang|de|Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch}} (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al.,<ref>Pages 1-2 of the book ({{lang|de|Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch}}) discuss {{lang|de|die Standardaussprache, die Gegenstand dieses Wörterbuches ist}} (the standard pronunciation which is the topic of this dictionary). It also mentions {{lang|de|Da sich das Deutsche zu einer plurizentrischen Sprache entwickelt hat, bildeten sich jeweils eigene Standardvarietäten (und damit Standardaussprachen)}} (German has developed into a pluricentric language separate standard varieties (and hence standard pronunciations)), but refers to these standards as {{lang|de|regionale und soziolektale Varianten}} (regional and sociolectal variants).</ref> {{lang|de|[[Duden]] 6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch}} (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by [[Max Mangold]] and the training materials of radio and television stations such as ''[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk]]'', ''[[Deutschlandfunk]]'', or ''[[Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen]]''. This standardised pronunciation was invented, rather than coming from any particular German-speaking city. But the pronunciation that Germans usually consider to be closest to the standard is that of [[Hanover]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Angeblich sprechen die Hannoveraner das reinste - sprich dialektfreieste - Deutsch und kommen dem Hochdeutschen am nächsten. Stimmt's?|newspaper=Die Zeit |date=14 June 2000 |url=https://www.zeit.de/stimmts/2000/200024_stimmts_hannover|quote=Stimmt. |last1=Drösser |first1=Christoph }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Reflections on Diglossia |url=http://faculty.ce.berkeley.edu/coby/essays/refdigl.htm|quote=In northern Germany, it appears that in Hanover – perhaps because of the presence of the electoral (later royal) court – a parastandard High German was spoken by the 18th century as well, at least among the educated, with the curious result that Hanover speech – though non-native – became the model of German pronunciation on the stage (Bühnendeutsch), since everywhere else in Germany dialects were still spoken by everyone. Other capitals (Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna) eventually developed their own Umgangssprachen, but the Hanover model remained the ideal.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Reading Heinrich Heine |url=https://the-eye.eu/public/WorldTracker.org/College%20Books/Cambridge%20University%20Press/0521863996.Cambridge.University.Press.Reading.Heinrich.Heine.Apr.2007.pdf|quote=He spoke the dialect of Hanover, where – as also in the vicinity to the south of this city – German is pronounced best.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nicht das beste Hochdeutsch in Hannover|date=7 August 2013 |url=http://www.haz.de/Nachrichten/Kultur/Uebersicht/Nicht-das-beste-Hochdeutsch-in-Hannover|quote=In Hannover wird zweifellos ein Deutsch gesprochen, das sehr nah an der nationalen Aussprachenorm liegt. Aber das gilt auch für andere norddeutsche Städte wie Kiel, Münster oder Rostock. Hannover hat da keine Sonderstellung.}}</ref>  Standard German is sometimes referred to as {{lang|de|[[Bühnendeutsch]]}} (stage German), but the latter has its own definition and is slightly different.<ref>Differences include the pronunciation of the endings {{lang|de|-er}}, {{lang|de|-en}}, and {{lang|de|-em}}.</ref>

==Vowels==
[[Image:Northern Standard German vowel chart.svg|thumb|[[Monophthong]]s of standard German, from {{Harvcoltxt|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=34}}]]

===Monophthongs===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Monophthong phonemes of Standard German
!rowspan=3|
!colspan=4| [[Front vowel|Front]]
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- class=small
!colspan=2| [[Roundedness|Unrounded]]
!colspan=2| [[Roundedness|Rounded]]
|- class=small
! [[Short vowel|short]]
! [[Long vowel|long]]
! short
! long
! short
! long
! short
! long
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|ɪ}}
| {{IPA link|iː}}
|{{IPA link|ʏ}}
| {{IPA link|yː}}
| colspan=2| 
|{{IPA link|ʊ}}
| {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|
| {{IPA link|eː}}
|
| {{IPA link|øː}}
| ({{IPA link|ə}})
| 
|
| {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| ({{IPA link|ɛː}})
| {{IPA link|œ}}
| 
| ({{IPA link|ɐ}})
| 
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
| 
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan=2| 
| colspan=2| 
| {{IPA link|ä|a}}
| {{IPA link|ä|aː}}
| colspan=2| 
|}

Some scholars<ref name="wiese1617&staffeldt">See the discussions in {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|pp=16–17}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Staffeldt|2010|pp=passim}}</ref> treat {{IPA|/ə/}} as an unstressed [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. Likewise, some scholars<ref name="wiese1617&staffeldt"/> treat {{IPA|/ɐ/}} as an allophone of the sequence {{IPA|/ər/}} or as a vocalic realization of syllabic {{IPA|/r̩/}}. The phonemic status of {{IPA|/ɛː/}} is also debated – [[Standard German phonology#Phonemic status of /ɛː/|see below]].

====Notes====
* Close vowels
** {{IPA|/iː/}} is close front unrounded {{IPAblink|iː}}.<ref name="Mangold37">See the vowel charts in {{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=37}}.</ref><ref name="Kohler87">{{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=87}}</ref><ref name="Lodge87">{{Harvcoltxt|Lodge|2009|p=87}}</ref>
** {{IPA|/yː/}} is close near-front rounded {{IPAblink|y|y̠ː}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
** {{IPA|/uː/}} is close back rounded {{IPAblink|uː}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
** {{IPA|/ɪ/}} has been variously described as near-close front unrounded {{IPAblink|ɪ|ɪ̟}}<ref name="Lodge87"/> and near-close near-front unrounded {{IPAblink|ɪ}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/>
** {{IPA|/ʏ/}} is near-close near-front rounded {{IPAblink|ʏ}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
** {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is near-close near-back rounded {{IPAblink|ʊ}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
* Mid vowels
** {{IPA|/eː/}} is close-mid front unrounded {{IPAblink|eː}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
*** In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Bavarian and Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong {{IPA|[eɪ]}}.
** {{IPA|/øː/}} has been variously described as close-mid near-front rounded {{IPAblink|ø|ø̠ː}}<ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/> and mid near-front rounded {{IPAblink|ø̞|ø̽ː}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/> One source{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=34}} shows it as considerably centralized on the vowel chart (the one shown above), closer to {{IPAblink|ɵː}} than cardinal {{IPAblink|øː}}.
*** In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong {{IPA|[øʏ]}}.
** {{IPA|/oː/}} is close-mid back rounded {{IPAblink|oː}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
*** In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong {{IPA|[oʊ]}}.
** {{IPA|/ə/}} has been variously described as mid central unrounded {{IPAblink|ə}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/> and close-mid central unrounded {{IPAblink|ɘ}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Wells's phonetic blog: {{IPA|ɘ|cat=no}}|date=3 June 2009 |url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/06/blog-post.html|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> It occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in {{lang|de|b'''e'''setz'''e'''n}} {{IPA|[bəˈzɛtsən]}} ('occupy'). It is often considered a complementary allophone together with {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, which only rarely or regionally occurs in unstressed syllables (e.g. {{lang|de|entsetzt}}).{{citation needed|date=July 2020|reason=It seems that native German words like ⟨elend⟩ [ˈ(ʔ)eːlɛnt] 'wretched' are pronounced with a completely unstressed syllable that contains an [ɛ] which cannot be realized as a schwa, cf. ⟨fehlend⟩ [ˈfeːl(ə)nt] 'lacking, missing'.}} If a [[sonorant]] follows in the [[syllable coda]], the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance {{lang|de|Kiss'''en'''}} {{IPA|[ˈkɪsn̩]}} ('pillow'), {{lang|de|Es'''el'''}} {{IPA|[ˈeːzl̩]}} ('donkey'). However, Standard German spoken in [[Luxembourg]] often lacks syllabic sonorants under the influence of Luxembourgish, so that e.g. {{lang|de|setz'''en'''}} ('put') is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈzɛtsən]}}, rather than {{IPA|[ˈzɛtsn̩]}}.{{sfnp|Gilles|Trouvain|2013|pp=70–71}}{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=39}}
** {{IPA|/ɛ/}} has been variously described as mid near-front unrounded {{IPAblink|ɛ̝|ɛ̽}}<ref name="Kohler87"/> and open-mid front unrounded {{IPAblink|ɛ}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
** {{IPA|/ɛː/}} has been variously described as mid front unrounded {{IPAblink|ɛ̝|ɛ̝ː}}<ref name="Mangold37"/> and open-mid front unrounded {{IPAblink|ɛː}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/>
** {{IPA|/œ/}} has been variously described as open-mid near-front rounded {{IPAblink|œ|œ̠}}<ref name="Lodge87"/> and somewhat lowered open-mid near-front rounded {{IPAblink|œ|œ̠˕}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/>
** {{IPA|/ɔ/}} has been variously described as somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded {{IPAblink|ɔ|ɔ̟}}<ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/> and open-mid back rounded {{IPAblink|ɔ}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/>
* Open vowels
** {{IPA|/ɐ/}} is near-open central unrounded {{IPAblink|ɐ}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler88">{{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=88}}</ref> It is a common allophone of the sequence {{IPA|/ər/}} common to all German-speaking areas but Switzerland. As schwa /ə/ is never pronounced here, it is also possible to interpret {{IPAblink|ɐ}} as the vocalic allophone of the syllabic sonorant /r̩/.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=256}}</ref>
** {{IPA|/a/}} has been variously described as open front unrounded {{IPAblink|a}}<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wierzbicka|Rynkowska|1992|p=413}}</ref> and open central unrounded {{IPAblink|ä}}.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/><ref name="Wiese8">{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=8}}</ref><ref name="Krechetal24">{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=24}}</ref> Some scholars<ref>E.g. {{Harvcoltxt|Wierzbicka|Rynkowska|1992}}</ref> differentiate two short {{IPA|/a/}}, namely front {{IPA|/a/}} and back {{IPA|/ɑ/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wierzbicka|Rynkowska|1992|p=412}}. Authors state that {{IPA|/ɑ/}} can be realized as Polish {{IPA|/a/}}, i.e. central {{IPA|[ä]}}.</ref> The latter occurs only in unstressed open syllables, exactly as {{IPA|/i, y, u, e, ø, o/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wierzbicka|Rynkowska|1992|pp=412–415}}</ref>
*** Standard Austrian pronunciation of this vowel is back {{IPAblink|ɑ}}.<ref name="moosjipa342344">{{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|Schmid|Brandstätter|2015|pp=342–344}}</ref>
*** Front {{IPAblink|a}} or even {{IPAblink|æ}} is a common realization of {{IPA|/a/}} in northern German varieties influenced by [[Low German]].
** {{IPA|/aː/}} has been variously described as open central unrounded {{IPAblink|äː}}<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/><ref name="Wiese8"/><ref name="Krechetal24"/> and open back unrounded {{IPAblink|ɑː}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wierzbicka|Rynkowska|1992|p=412}}</ref> Because of this, it is sometimes transcribed {{IPA|/ɑː/}}.<ref>e.g. by {{Harvcoltxt|Lodge|2009|pp=86–89}} (without length marks, i.e. as {{IPA|/ɑ/}}—the vowel chart on page 87 places {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ɑ/}} in the same open central position {{IPA|[ä]}}), {{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005}} (without length marks, i.e. as {{IPA|/ɑ/}}) and {{Harvcoltxt|Wierzbicka|Rynkowska|1992}}.</ref>
*** Back {{IPAblink|ɑː}} is the Standard Austrian pronunciation.<ref name="moosjipa342344"/> It is also a common realization of {{IPA|/aː/}} in northern German varieties influenced by [[Low German]] (in which it may even be rounded {{IPAblink|ɒː}}).
** {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996}} notes that "there is a tendency to neutralize the distinction between {{IPA|[a(ː)]}}, {{IPA|[aɐ̯]}}, and {{IPA|[ɐ]}}. That is, {{lang|de|Oda}}, {{lang|de|Radar}}, and {{lang|de|Oder}} have final syllables which are perceptually very similar, and are nearly or completely identical in some dialects."<ref name="Wiese254">{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=254}}</ref> He also says that "outside of a word context, {{IPA|[ɐ]}} cannot be distinguished from {{IPA|[a]}}.<ref name="Wiese254"/> (As early as 1847, [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s librettist found it natural, when [[I masnadieri|adapting]] [[Die Räuber|a play]] by Schiller into the Italian language, to render the distinctly German name ''Roller'' as ''Rolla''.)
** According to the 7th edition of ''Das Aussprachewörterbuch'', the standard pronunciation differentiates {{IPA|[ɐ]}} from unstressed {{IPA|[a]}} (which typically belongs to {{IPA|/aː/}} phoneme, see below). The authors claim that the difference is one of height: {{IPAblink|ɐ}} vs. {{IPAblink|ä}}. However, they tend to be neutralized in the [[Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region]] towards an open central {{IPAblink|ä}}. Conversely, in southern Germany, {{IPA|/ɐ/}} is often realized as {{IPAblink|ə}} (in turn, Standard {{IPA|/ə/}} is often closer to {{IPAblink|ɛ}}). In [[Franconia]] and partially also in the coastal regions of Germany, the vowel is closer to {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, whereas in west-central Germany it is slightly more open, that is {{IPAblink|æ}}. In each case but the first one, {{IPA|[ɐ]}} is strongly differentiated from {{IPA|[a]}}. In regions without r-vocalization, the difference is always present.{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|pp=40, 72}}
** According to a 2020 study, {{IPA|[ɐ]}} is not distinguished from unstressed {{IPA|[a]}} in Northern Standard German. Word pairs such as {{lang|de|Oper}} 'opera' (traditionally transcribed {{IPA|[ˈoːpɐ]}}) and {{lang|de|Opa}} 'grandpa' (traditionally transcribed {{IPA|[ˈoːpa]}}) are thus homophones (as {{IPA|[ˈoːpɐ]}}), rather than minimal pairs. The merged vowel has a centralized quality {{IPAblink|ɐ}}. The authors of the study advocate for ditching the distinction in transcriptions aimed at foreign learners of German. This neutralization may not apply to all dialects with r-vocalization, particularly the southern ones.{{sfnp|Rathcke|Mooshammer|2020|pp=48–50}}

Although there is also a [[Vowel length|length contrast]], vowels are often analyzed according to a [[tenseness]] contrast, with long {{IPA|/iː, yː, uː, eː, øː, oː/}} being the tense vowels and short {{IPA|/ɪ, ʏ, ʊ, ɛ, œ, ɔ/}} their lax counterparts. Like the English [[checked vowel]]s, the German lax vowels require a following consonant, with the notable exception of {{IPA|/ɛː/}} (which is absent in many varieties, as discussed below). {{IPA|/a/}} is sometimes considered the lax counterpart of tense {{IPA|/aː/}} in order to maintain this tense/lax division. Short {{IPA|[i, y, u, e, ø, o]}} occur in unstressed syllables of [[loanwords]], for instance in {{lang|de|Ps'''y'''ch'''o'''m'''e'''trie}} {{IPA|[psyçomeˈtʁiː]}} ('psychometry'). They are usually considered [[allophone]]s of tense vowels (thus {{IPA|/psyːçoːmeːˈtriː/}}), which cannot occur in unstressed syllables (unless in compounds). {{IPA|/aː/}} is similarly shortened in those positions, with the difference being that it is shortened also in native words, such as aforementioned {{lang|de|Opa}} {{IPA|[ˈoːpa]}} 'grandpa' (phonemically {{IPA|/ˈoːpaː/}}).

In dialects with r-vocalization, historical {{IPA|/a(ː)r/}} (phonetically typically a long monophthong {{IPAblink|äː}}) may undergo a shortening akin to {{IPA|/aː/}} when unstressed, as in one pronunciation of {{lang|de|Rad'''ar'''}} 'radar' as {{IPA|[ˈʁaːda]}} (phonemically {{IPA|/ˈraːdaːr/}}).<ref name="Wiese254"/> An analogous process has taken place in Danish, as in the cognate {{lang|da|radar}} {{IPA|da|ˈʁɑːtɑ|}}, meaning the same.<ref>{{cite web|title=radar — Den Danske Ordbog|url=https://ordnet.dk/ddo/ordbog?query=radar|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref>

Northern German varieties influenced by Low German could be analyzed as lacking contrasting vowel quantity entirely:
* {{IPA|/aː/}} has a different quality than {{IPA|/a/}} (see above).
* These varieties also consistently lack {{IPA|/ɛː/}}, and use only {{IPA|/eː/}} in its place.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}{{fix|text=What about the pronunciation of the letter Ä itself and the subjunctive forms?|date=June 2024}}

====Phonemic status of {{IPA|/ɛː/}}====
The existence of a phoneme {{IPA|/ɛː/}} in German is disputed.{{sfn|Noack|2023}}
The distinction between the long lax {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and the long tense {{IPA|/eː/}} does not exist in some varieties of Standard German, and many authors treat the {{IPA|/ɛː/}} phoneme as peripheral and regard a distinction between it and {{IPA|/eː/}} as a spelling pronunciation.{{sfn|van Lessen Kloeke|1982|p=11}} Most commonly, they are merged before an intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}}, so that potential minimal pairs such as {{lang|de|'''Äh'''re}} 'ear of grain' and {{lang|de|'''Eh'''re}} 'honor' or {{lang|de|B'''ä'''ren}} 'bears' and {{lang|de|B'''ee'''ren}} 'berries' are rendered homophonous, as {{IPA|/ˈɛːrə/}} and {{IPA|/ˈbɛːrən/}}. Some authors claim that no distinction between {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/eː/}} is possible in this position unless in hypercorrect pronunciation, in which {{lang|de|'''Eh'''re}} and {{lang|de|B'''ee'''ren}} may be pronounced {{IPA|[ˈeːʁə]}} and {{IPA|[ˈbeːʁən]}}, with a tense {{IPA|/eː/}}.{{sfnp|Wiese|1996|p=17}} Other authors claim that there is regional variation, a distinction occurring especially in southern varieties of Standard German.{{sfnp|Eisenberg|2016|p=97}} In contexts other than before intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}}, the contrast between {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/eː/}} is more stable, so that {{lang|de|b'''ä'''ten}} {{IPA|/ˈbɛːtən/}} 'bid, conjunctive', {{lang|de|D'''ä'''nen}} {{IPA|/ˈdɛːnən/}} 'Danes' and {{lang|de|S'''ä'''gen}} {{IPA|/ˈzɛːɡən/}} ('saws, n.') may be differentiated from {{lang|de|b'''e'''ten}} {{IPA|/ˈbeːtən/}} 'to pray', {{lang|de|d'''eh'''nen}} {{IPA|/ˈdeːnən/}} 'to stretch' and {{lang|de|S'''e'''gen}} {{IPA|/ˈzeːɡən/}} 'blessing'. Even here the vowels can merge, but to a tense {{IPA|/eː/}}: {{IPA|[ˈbeːtn̩, ˈdeːnən, ˈzeːɡn̩]}}.{{sfnp|Wiese|1996|p=17}} Scholars who question the existence of a phoneme {{IPA|/ɛː/}} do so for the following reasons:
# The existence of a phoneme {{IPA|/ɛː/}} is an irregularity in a vowel system that otherwise has pairs of long and tense vs. short and lax vowels such as {{IPA|/oː/}} vs. {{IPA|/ɔ/}}.{{sfn|van Lessen Kloeke|1982|p=11}} On the other hand, such irregularities are not ruled out by any principle.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
# The phoneme {{IPA|/ɛː/}} has developed out of the spelling of the language rather than from any historical [[sound change]].{{sfn|Noack|2023}} Most examples of [[Middle High German]] /ǣ/ correspond to New High German {{IPA|/eː/}} rather than {{IPA|/ɛː/}}, indicating that the modern  {{IPA|/ɛː/}} is not a regular development.{{sfn|van Lessen Kloeke|1982|pp=11-12}}
# Although some dialects (e.g. [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] and some [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects) have an opposition of {{IPA|/eː/}} vs. {{IPA|/ɛː/}}, their usage does not follow that of the standard.{{sfn|van Lessen Kloeke|1982|pp=11-12}} There is also little agreement across dialects as to whether individual lexical items should be pronounced with {{IPA|/eː/}} or with {{IPA|/ɛː/}}. E.g. South Hessian dialects have {{IPA|/eː/}} in ''Käse'' but {{IPA|/ɛː/}} in ''Leben''.<ref>[https://www.lagis-hessen.de/de/subjects/gsform/sn/shwb Südhessisches Wörterbuch online]</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2024}}
# The use of {{IPA|/ɛː/}} is a [[spelling pronunciation]] rather than an original feature of the language. It is an attempt to "speak as printed" ({{lang|de|sprechen wie gedruckt}}) and to differentiate the spellings {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|ä}} (i.e. speakers attempt to justify the appearance of {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|ä}} in writing by making them distinct in the spoken language).<ref name="bären=beeren">{{Harvcoltxt|von Polenz|2000|pp=151, 175}}</ref>{{sfn|van Lessen Kloeke|1982|p=11}}

===Diphthongs===

====Phonemic====
[[Image:Northern Standard German diphthong chart.svg|thumb|[[Diphthong]]s of standard German, from {{Harvcoltxt|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=35}}]]
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2" |
!colspan="2" | Ending point
|- align=center
!Front
!Back
|- align=center
! Near-close
| ({{IPA|ʊɪ̯}})
|
|- align=center
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɔɪ̯}}
|
|- align=center
!Open
|{{IPA|aɪ̯}}
|{{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|}

*{{IPA|/aɪ̯/}} has been variously described as {{IPA|[äɪ]}},<ref name="Mangold37" /><ref name="WieseDiph">Source: {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|pp=11, 14}}. On the page 14, the author states that {{IPA|/aɪ̯/}}, {{IPA|/aʊ̯/}} and {{IPA|/ɔʏ̯/}} are of the same quality as vowels of which they consist. On the page 8, he states that {{IPA|/a/}} is low central.</ref> {{IPA|[äe̠]}}<ref name="Kohler87D">See vowel chart in {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=87}}. Despite their true ending points, Kohler still transcribes them as {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯ ɔɪ̯/}}, i.e. with higher offsets than those actually have.</ref> and {{IPA|[aɛ]}}.<ref>Source: {{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=72}}. Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Instead, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong {{IPA|[aɛ̯]}} is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the unrounded open vowel {{IPA|[a]}} and the unrounded mid front vowel {{IPA|[ɛ]}}."</ref>
* {{IPA|/aʊ̯/}} has been variously described as {{IPA|[äʊ]}},<ref name="WieseDiph"/> {{IPA|[äʊ̞]}},<ref name="Mangold37"/> {{IPA|[äo̟]}}<ref name="Kohler87D"/> and {{IPA|[aɔ]}}.<ref>Source: {{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=72–73}}. Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Instead, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong {{IPA|[aɔ̯]}} is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the unrounded open vowel {{IPA|[a]}} and the rounded mid back vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}}."</ref>
* {{IPA|/ɔɪ̯/}} has been variously described as {{IPA|[ɔʏ]}},<ref name="WieseDiph"/> {{IPA|[ɔʏ̞]}},<ref name="Mangold37"/> {{IPA|[ɔe̠]}}<ref name="Kohler87D"/> and {{IPA|[ɔœ]}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=73}}. Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Instead, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong {{IPA|[ɔœ̯]}} is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the rounded mid back vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} and the rounded mid front vowel {{IPA|[œ]}}."</ref>
* {{IPA|/ʊɪ̯/}} is found only in a handful of [[interjection]]s such as {{lang|de|pfui}} {{IPA|[pfʊɪ̯]}} and {{lang|de|hui}} {{IPA|[hʊɪ̯]}}, and as an alternative to disyllabic {{IPA|[uː.ɪ]}} in words such as {{lang|de|ruhig}} {{IPA|[ʁʊɪ̯ç]}}.{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=34}}{{sfnp|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=26}}

====Phonetic====
The following usually are not counted among the German diphthongs as German speakers often feel they are distinct marks of "foreign words" ({{lang|de|Fremdwörter}}). These appear only in loanwords:
* {{IPA|[o̯a]}}, as in {{lang|de|Cr'''oi'''ssant}} {{IPA|[kʁ̥o̯aˈsɑ̃]}}, colloquially: {{IPA|[kʁ̥o̯aˈsaŋ]}}.
* Many German speakers use {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯]}} and {{IPA|[ɔʊ̯]}} as adaptations of the English diphthongs {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} and {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} in English loanwords, according to {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996}}, or they replace them with the native German long vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}}. Thus, the word {{lang|de|okay}} may be pronounced {{IPA|[ɔʊ̯ˈkɛɪ̯]}} or {{IPA|/oːˈkeː/}}.<ref name="Wiese12">{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=12}}</ref> However, {{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009}} do not recognize these diphthongs as phonemes, and prescribe pronunciations with the long vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} instead.

In the varieties where speakers vocalize {{IPA|/r/}} to {{IPAblink|ɐ}} in the syllable coda, a diphthong ending in {{IPA|[ɐ̯]}} may be formed with every stressable vowel:
[[Image:German ɐ diphthongs chart - part 1.svg|thumb|German diphthongs ending in {{IPA|[ɐ̯]|cat=no}} (part 1), from {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=88}}]]
[[Image:German ɐ diphthongs chart - part 2.svg|thumb|German diphthongs ending in {{IPA|[ɐ̯]|cat=no}} (part 2), from {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=88}}]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+R-vocalization in Standard German
|-
! colspan="2" | Diphthong
! colspan="3" | Example
|-
! Phonemically
! Phonetically
! IPA
! Orthography
! Translation
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪr/}}
| {{IPA|[ɪɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[vɪɐ̯t]}}
| {{lang|de|w<u>ir</u>d}}
| he/she/it becomes
|-
| {{IPA|/iːr/}}
| {{IPA|[iːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[viːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|w<u>ir</u>}}
| we
|-
| {{IPA|/ʏr/}}
| {{IPA|[ʏɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈvʏɐ̯də]}}
| {{lang|de|W<u>ür</u>de}}
| dignity
|-
| {{IPA|/yːr/}}
| {{IPA|[yːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[fyːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|f<u>ür</u>}}
| for
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊr/}}
| {{IPA|[ʊɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈvʊɐ̯də]}}
| {{lang|de|w<u>ur</u>de}}
| I/he/she/it became
|-
| {{IPA|/uːr/}}
| {{IPA|[uːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[ˈuːɐ̯laʊ̯p]}}
| {{lang|de|<u>Ur</u>laub}}
| holiday
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{IPA|/ɛr/}}
| {{IPA|[ɛɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[ɛɐ̯ft]}}
| {{lang|de|<u>Er</u>ft}}
| Erft
|-
| {{IPA|[ɐ]}}{{ref|2|2}}
| {{IPA|[ˈoːpɐ]}}
| {{lang|de|Op<u>er</u>}}
| Opera
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛːr/}}
| {{IPA|[ɛːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[bɛːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|B<u>är</u>}}
| bear
|-
| {{IPA|/eːr/}}
| {{IPA|[eːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[meːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|m<u>ehr</u>}}
| more
|-
| {{IPA|/œr/}}
| {{IPA|[œɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[dœɐ̯t]}}
| {{lang|de|d<u>örr</u>t}}
| he/she/it dries
|-
| {{IPA|/øːr/}}
| {{IPA|[øːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[høːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|h<u>ör</u>!}}
| (thou) hear!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔr/}}
| {{IPA|[ɔɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈnɔɐ̯dn̩]}}
| {{lang|de|N<u>or</u>den}}
| north
|-
| {{IPA|/oːr/}}
| {{IPA|[oːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[toːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|T<u>or</u>}}
| gate
|-
| {{IPA|/ar/}}
| {{IPA|[aɐ̯]}}
| {{IPA|[haɐ̯t]}}
| {{lang|de|h<u>ar</u>t}}
| hard
|-
| {{IPA|/aːr/}}
| {{IPA|[aːɐ̯]}}{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA|[vaːɐ̯]}}
| {{lang|de|w<u>ahr</u>}}
| true
|}

:{{note|1|1}}{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996}} notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic {{IPA|/r/}}<ref name="Wiese198">{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=198}}</ref> and that "{{Harvcoltxt|Meinhold|Stock|1980|p=180}}, following the pronouncing dictionaries ({{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|1990}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stötzer|1982}}) judge the vowel in {{lang|de|Art}}, {{lang|de|Schwert}}, {{lang|de|Fahrt}} to be long, while the vowel in {{lang|de|Ort}}, {{lang|de|Furcht}}, {{lang|de|hart}} is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable."<ref name="Wiese198"/><ref>Also supported by {{Harvcoltxt|Tröster-Mutz|2011|p=20}}.</ref> He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic {{IPA|/r/}} which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if {{IPA|/a/}} precedes.<ref name="Wiese198"/>
:According to the "lengthless" analysis, the aforementioned "long" diphthongs are analyzed as {{IPA|[iɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[yɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[uɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[ɛɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[eɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[øɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[oɐ̯]}} and {{IPA|[aɐ̯]}}. This makes non-prevocalic {{IPA|/ar/}} and {{IPA|/aːr/}} homophonous as {{IPA|[aɐ̯]}} or {{IPA|[aː]}}. Non-prevocalic {{IPA|/ɛr/}} and {{IPA|/ɛːr/}} may also merge, but the vowel chart in {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999}} shows that they have somewhat different starting points – [[mid-centralized]] open-mid front {{IPAblink|ɛ̝|ɛ̽}} for the former, open-mid front {{IPAblink|ɛ}} for the latter.<ref name="Kohler88"/>
:{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996}} also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases."<ref name="Wiese198"/> This leads to {{IPA|[iɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[yɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[uɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[eɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[øɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[oɐ̯]}} being pronounced the same as {{IPA|[ɪɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[ʏɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[ʊɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[ɛɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[œɐ̯]}}, {{IPA|[ɔɐ̯]}}. This merger is usual in the Standard Austrian accent, in which e.g. {{lang|de|Moor}} 'bog' is often pronounced {{IPA|[mɔɐ̯]}}; this, in contrast with the Standard Northern variety, also happens intervocalically, along with the diphthongization of the laxed vowel to {{IPA|[Vɐ̯]}}, so that e.g. {{lang|de|Lehrer}} 'teacher' is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈlɛɐ̯ʁɐ]}}<ref name="moosjipa342">{{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|Schmid|Brandstätter|2015|p=342}}</ref> (the corresponding Standard Northern pronunciation is {{IPA|[ˈleːʁɐ]}}). Another feature of the Standard Austrian accent is complete absorption of {{IPA|[ɐ̯]}} by the preceding {{IPA|/a, aː/}}, so that e.g. {{lang|de|rar}} 'scarce' is pronounced {{IPA|[ʁɑː]}}.<ref name="moosjipa342"/>

:{{note|2|2}}At the end of words only.

==Consonants==
With around 22 to 26 phonemes, the German consonant system has an average number of consonants in comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual [[affricate consonant#Non-sibilant affricates|affricate]] {{IPA|/pf/}}.<ref>For a detailed discussion of the German consonants from a synchronic and diachronic point of view, see {{Harvcoltxt|Cercignani|1979}}.</ref>

{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! {{small|[[Fortis and lenis|Fortis]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|({{IPA link|ʔ}})
|-
! {{small|[[Fortis and lenis|Lenis]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! {{small|[[Fortis and lenis|Fortis]]}}
| {{IPA link|pf}}
| {{IPA link|ts}}
| {{IPA link|tʃ}}
| 
|
|
|-
! {{small|[[Fortis and lenis|Lenis]]}}
|
|
| ({{IPA link|dʒ}})
| 
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[Fortis and lenis|Fortis]]}}
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|ç}}
| ({{IPA link|x}})
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! {{small|[[Fortis and lenis|Lenis]]}}
| {{IPA link|v}}
| {{IPA link|z}}
| ({{IPA link|ʒ}})
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| colspan="4" |{{IPA|[[Rhotic consonant|r]]}}
|
|}

*{{IPA|/r/}} can be uvular, alveolar or even dental, a consonant or a semivowel, see below.
*{{IPA|/pf/}} is bilabial–labiodental {{IPA|[pf]}}, rather than purely labiodental {{IPA|[p̪f]}}.<ref name="MangoldPF">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=45}}</ref>
*{{IPA|/b, d, g, z, dʒ, ʒ/}} are voiceless in Austrian Standard German <ref name="moosjipa341">{{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|Schmid|Brandstätter|2015|p=341}}</ref> and in most other South German varieties.
*{{IPA|/t, d, l, n/}} can be [[Apical consonant|apical]] alveolar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t|t̺}}, {{IPAplink|d|d̺}}, {{IPAplink|l|l̺}}, {{IPAplink|n|n̺}}]}},<ref name="coronalsa">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|pp=47, 49}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=94, 96}}. According to this source, only {{IPA|/l, n/}} can be apical alveolar.</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|pp=51–52, 84}}. According to this source, only {{IPA|/t, n/}} can be apical alveolar.</ref><ref>See the x-ray tracing of {{IPA|/l/}} in {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=184}}, based on data from {{Harvcoltxt|Wängler|1961}}.</ref> [[Laminal consonant|laminal]] alveolar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t|t̻}}, {{IPAplink|d|d̻}}, {{IPAplink|l|l̻}}, {{IPAplink|n|n̻}}]}}<ref name="coronalsa"/><ref name="coronalsa-krech">{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=90, 94, 96}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|pp=51–52, 84}}. According to this source, only {{IPA|/t, n/}} can be laminal alveolar.</ref> or laminal [[Denti-alveolar consonant|denti-alveolar]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t̪}}, {{IPAplink|d̪}}, {{IPAplink|l̪}}, {{IPAplink|n̪}}]}}.<ref name="coronalsa"/><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=90}}. According to this source, only {{IPA|/t, d/}} can be laminal denti-alveolar.</ref><ref name="coronalsa-pl">{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|pp=51–52, 59, 78, 84}}</ref><ref>See the x-ray tracing of {{IPA|/t/}} in {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=184}}, based on data from {{Harvcoltxt|Wängler|1961}}.</ref> The other possible pronunciation of {{IPA|/d/}} that has been reported to occur in unstressed intervocalic positions is retroflex {{IPAblink|ɖ}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hamann|Fuchs|2010|pp=14–24}}</ref> Austrian German often uses laminal denti-alveolar articulation.
*{{IPA|/l/}} is always [[clear l|clear {{IPA|[l]|cat=no}}]], as in most [[Irish English]] accents. A few Austrian accents may use a [[dark l|velarized {{IPA|[ɫ]|cat=no}}]] instead, but that is considered non-standard.
*In the Standard Austrian variety, {{IPA|/k/}} may be affricated to {{IPAblink|kx}} before front vowels.<ref name="moosjipa341"/>
*{{IPA|/ts, s, z/}} can be laminal alveolar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ts|t̻s̻}}, {{IPAplink|s|s̻}}, {{IPAplink|z|z̻}}]}},<ref name="coronalsb">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|pp=50, 52}}</ref><ref name="coronalsb-krech">{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=79–80}}. This source talks only about {{IPA|/s, z/}}.</ref><ref name="coronalsb-pl">{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|pp=65, 75}} This source talks only about {{IPA|/s, z/}}.</ref> laminal post-dental {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t̪s̪}}, {{IPAplink|s̪}}, {{IPAplink|z̪}}]}}<ref name="coronalsb"/><ref name="coronalsb-pl"/> (i.e. fronted alveolar, articulated with the blade of the tongue just behind upper front teeth),<ref name="coronalsb"/> or even apical alveolar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ts|t̺s̺}}, {{IPAplink|s̺}}, {{IPAplink|z̺}}]}}.<ref name="coronalsb"/><ref name="coronalsb-krech"/><ref name="coronalsb-pl"/> {{IPA|/s, z/}} are always strongly fricated.<ref name="coronalsc">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=50}}</ref> Austrian German often uses the post-dental articulation for {{IPA|/s/}}.
*{{IPA|/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/}} are strongly [[labialization|labialized]] [[Palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] sibilants {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|tʃ}}ʷ, {{IPAplink|dʒ}}ʷ, {{IPAplink|ʃ}}ʷ, {{IPAplink|ʒ}}ʷ]}}.<ref name="MangoldPA">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|pp=51–52}}</ref><ref name="KrechPA">{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=51–52}}</ref><ref name="MorciniecPA">{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|pp=67, 76}}</ref> {{IPA|/ʃ, ʒ/}} are fricated more weakly than {{IPA|/s, z/}}.<ref name="mangold51">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=51}}</ref> There are two variants of these sounds:
**Laminal,<ref name="MangoldPA"/><ref name="MorciniecPA"/> articulated with the foremost part of the blade of the tongue approaching the foremost part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue resting behind either upper or lower front teeth.<ref name="MangoldPA"/>
**Apico-laminal,<ref name="MangoldPA"/><ref name="KrechPA"/><ref name="MorciniecPA"/> articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the gums and the foremost part of the blade approaching the foremost part of the hard palate.<ref name="MangoldPA"/> According to {{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005}}, this variant is used more frequently.<ref name="MorciniecPA"/>
*{{IPA|/r/}} has a number of possible realizations:
** Voiced apical coronal trill {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|r|r̺}}]}},<ref name="coronalsd">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=53}}</ref><ref name="coronalsd-krech">{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=86}}</ref><ref name="coronalsd-pl">{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|p=79}}</ref> either alveolar (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge),<ref name="coronalsd"/><ref name="coronalsd-krech"/><ref name="coronalsd-pl"/> or dental (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper front teeth).<ref name="coronalsd"/>
*** Distribution: Common in the south (Bavaria and many parts of Switzerland and Austria), but it is also found in some speakers in central and northern Germany, especially the elderly. It is also one of possible realizations of {{IPA|/r/}} in the Standard Austrian accent, but a more common alveolar realization is an approximant {{IPAblink|ɹ}}. Even more common are uvular realizations, fricatives {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ʁ}} ~ {{IPAplink|χ}}]}} and a trill {{IPAblink|ʀ}}.<ref name="moosjipa341342">{{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|Schmid|Brandstätter|2015|pp=341–342}}: "SAG features a wide variety of realizations of the trill. In approximately the past 40 years, the pronunciation norm has changed from an alveolar to a uvular trill. The latter is mostly pronounced as a fricative, either voiced or voiceless. Alveolar trills are still in use, mostly pronounced as an approximant.</ref>
** Voiced uvular trill {{IPAblink|ʀ}},<ref name="coronalsd"/><ref name="coronalsd-krech"/><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|pp=225, 229}}</ref> which can be realized as voiceless {{IPAblink|ʀ̥}} after voiceless consonants (as in {{lang|de|t'''r'''eten}}).<ref name="coronalsd-krech"/> According to {{Harvcoltxt|Lodge|2009}} it is often a [[Tap consonant|flap]] {{IPAblink|ʀ̆}} intervocalically (as in {{lang|de|Eh'''r'''e}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lodge|2009|p=46}}</ref>
*** Distribution: Occurs in some conservative varieties—most speakers with a uvular {{IPA|/r/}} realize it as a fricative or an approximant.<ref name="SOWL225">{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=225}}</ref> It is also one of possible realizations of {{IPA|/r/}} in the Standard Austrian accent, but it is less common than a fricative {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ʁ}} ~ {{IPAplink|χ}}]}}.<ref name="moosjipa341342"/>
** Dorsal continuant, about the quality of which there is not a complete agreement:
*** {{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009}} describe two fricative variants, namely [[Voiced palatal fricative|post-palatal]] {{IPA|[ɣ˖]}} and [[Voiced velar fricative|velar]] {{IPA|[ɣ]}}. The post-palatal variant appears before and after [[front vowel]]s, while the velar variant is used in all other positions.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=74, 85}}</ref>
*** {{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005}} describe it as a [[Voiced velar fricative|voiced post-velar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ̟]}}.<ref name="Morciniec 2005 81">{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|p=81}}</ref> 
*** {{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999}} describe it as a [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}};<ref name="coronalsd"/><ref name="Kohler86">{{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=86}}</ref>
**** {{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005}} states that "with educated professional radio and TV announcers, as with professional actors on the stage and in film, the [voiced uvular] fricative [realization of] {{IPA|/r/}} clearly predominates."<ref name="coronalsd"/>
***** In the Standard Austrian accent, the uvular fricative is also the most common realization, although its voicing is variable (that is, it can be either voiced {{IPAblink|ʁ}} or voiceless {{IPAblink|χ}}).<ref name="moosjipa341342"/>
**** {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999}} writes that "the place of articulation of the consonant varies from uvular in e.g. {{lang|de|rot}} ('red') to velar in e.g. {{lang|de|treten}} ('kick'), depending on back or front vowel contexts." He also notes that {{IPAblink|ʁ}} is devoiced after voiceless plosives and fricatives, especially those within the same word, giving the word {{lang|de|treten}} as an example. According to this author, {{IPA|[ʁ]}} can be reduced to an approximant in an intervocalic position.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|pp=86–87}}</ref>
*** {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996}} describe it as a uvular fricative {{IPA|[ʁ]}} or approximant {{IPA|[ʁ̞]}}. The latter is less likely to occur word-initially.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|pp=225, 233–234}}</ref>
*** Distribution: Almost all areas apart from Bavaria and parts of Switzerland.
** Near-open central unrounded vowel {{IPAblink|ɐ}} is a post-vocalic allophone of (mostly dorsal) varieties of {{IPA|/r/}}. The non-syllabic variant of it is not always near-open or central; it is similar to either {{IPAblink|ɑ}} or {{IPAblink|ə}}, depending on the environment.<ref name="Morciniec 2005 81"/>
*** Distribution: Widespread, but less common in Switzerland.
** Retroflex approximant [<nowiki/>[[Voiced retroflex approximant|ɻ]]⁠] realized like the r in [[American English|Standard American English]].
*** Distribution: Middle Hessian between the [[Wetterau]] region and the [[Westerwald]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=deutschlandfunkkultur.de |title=Dialekte - Hessische Zungenbrecher |url=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/dialekte-hessische-zungenbrecher-100.html |access-date=2024-04-18 |website=Deutschlandfunk Kultur |date=23 October 2014 |language=de}}</ref> and the Higher Lusatia.
*The voiceless stops {{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t}}, {{IPAslink|k}} are [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] except when preceded by a [[sibilant]]. Many southern dialects do not aspirate {{IPA|/p t k/}}, and some northern ones do so only in a stressed position. The voiceless affricates {{IPA|/pf/}}, {{IPA|/ts/}}, and {{IPA|/tʃ/}} are never aspirated,<ref name="coronalse">{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=52}}</ref> and neither are any other consonants besides the aforementioned {{IPA|/p, t, k/}}.<ref name="coronalse"/>
*The obstruents {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, z, ʒ, dʒ/}} are voiceless [[Fortis and lenis|lenis consonants]] {{IPA|[b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, z̥, ʒ̊, d̥ʒ̊]}} in southern varieties. Voiceless lenis consonants {{IPA|[b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, z̥]}} continue to contrast with voiceless fortis consonants {{IPA|[p, t, k, s]}}. The section {{slink||Fortis–lenis pairs}} covers the issue in more detail.
*In Austria, [[intervocalic]] {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} can be lenited to fricatives {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|β}}, {{IPAplink|ð}}, {{IPAplink|ɣ}}]}}.<ref name="moosjipa341"/><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|2007|p=6}}</ref>
*Before and after front vowels ({{IPA|/ɪ, iː, ʏ, yː, ɛ, ɛː, eː, œ, øː/}} and, in varieties that realize them as front, {{IPA|/a/}} and/or {{IPA|/aː/}}), the velar consonants {{IPA|/ŋ, k, ɡ/}} are realized as post-palatal {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ŋ˖}}, {{IPAplink|k̟}}, {{IPAplink|ɡ˖}}]}}.<ref name="wiese-velarpoa">{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=271}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=49, 92, 97}}</ref> According to {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996}}, in a parallel process, {{IPA|/k, ɡ/}} before and after back vowels ({{IPA|/ʊ, uː, ɔ, oː/}} and, in varieties that realize them as back, {{IPA|/a/}} and/or {{IPA|/aː/}}) are retracted to post-velar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|k̠}}, {{IPAplink|ɡ˗}}]}} or even uvular {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|q}}, {{IPAplink|ɢ}}]}}.<ref name="wiese-velarpoa"/>
*There is no complete agreement about the nature of {{IPA|/j/}}; it has been variously described as:
**a fricative {{IPAblink|ʝ}},<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|pp=83–84}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Morciniec|Prędota|2005|pp=77–78}}. The authors transcribe it {{IPA|/j/}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=12}}. The author transcribes it {{IPA|/j/}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref>
**a fricative which can be fricated less strongly than {{IPAblink|ç}},<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=51}}. The author transcribes it {{IPA|/j/}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref>
**a sound variable between a weak fricative and an approximant,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hall|2003|p=48}}. The author transcribes it {{IPA|/j/}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref> and
**an approximant {{IPAblink|j}},<ref name="Kohler86" /><ref name="moosjipa340">{{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|Schmid|Brandstätter|2015|p=340}}. The authors transcribe it as {{IPA|/j/}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref> which is the usual realization in the Standard Austrian variety.<ref name="moosjipa340" />
*In many varieties of standard German, the glottal stop, {{IPAblink|ʔ}}, occurs in careful speech before word stems that begin with a vowel and before stressed vowels word-internally, as in ''Oase'' [ʔo.ʔaː.zə] (twice). It is much more frequent in northern varieties than in the south. It is not usually considered a phoneme. In colloquial and dialectal speech, {{IPA|[ʔ]}} is often omitted, especially when the word beginning with a vowel is unstressed.
*The phonemic status of affricates is controversial. The majority view accepts {{IPAslink|pf}} and {{IPAslink|ts}}, but not {{IPAslink|tʃ}} or the non-native {{IPAslink|dʒ}}; some<ref>e.g. {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1990}}</ref> accept none, some accept all but {{IPAslink|dʒ}}, and some<ref>e.g. {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996}}</ref> accept all.
**Although {{IPAblink|tʃ}} occurs in native words, it only appears in historic clusters of {{IPAslink|t}} + {{IPAslink|ʃ}} (e.g. ''deutsch'' < [[Old High German|OHG]] ''diutisc'') or in words with expressive quality (e.g. ''glitschen'', ''hutschen''). {{IPA|[tʃ]}} is, however, well-established in loanwords, including German [[toponym]]s of non-Germanic origin (e.g. ''[[Zschopau]]'').
**{{IPAblink|dʒ}} and {{IPAblink|ʒ}} occur only in words of foreign origin. In certain varieties, they are replaced by {{IPAblink|tʃ}} and {{IPAblink|ʃ}} altogether.
*{{IPAblink|ʋ}} is occasionally considered to be an allophone of {{IPAslink|v}}, especially in southern varieties of German.
*{{IPAblink|ç}} and {{IPAblink|x}} are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels, respectively. For a more detailed analysis see below at [[#Ich-Laut and ach-Laut|''ich-Laut'' and ''ach-Laut'']]. According to some analyses, {{IPAblink|χ}} is an allophone of {{IPAslink|x}} after {{IPA|/a, aː/}} and according to some also after {{IPA|/ʊ, ɔ, aʊ̯/}}.<ref name="Kohler88"/><ref name="moosjipa341"/> However, according to {{Harvcoltxt|Moosmüller|Schmid|Brandstätter|2015}}, the uvular allophone is used after {{IPA|/ɔ/}} only in the Standard Austrian variety.<ref name="moosjipa341"/>
*Some phonologists do not posit a separate phoneme {{IPAslink|ŋ}} and use {{IPA|/nɡ/}} instead,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graefen |first1= Gabriele |last2= Liedke |first2=Martina |year=2012  |title=Germanistische Sprachwissenschaft: Deutsch als Erst-, Zweit- oder Fremdsprache |edition=2nd, revised |language=de |place=Tübingen |publisher=A. Franke |isbn= 9783825284916 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bLeeDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA217}}</ref> along with {{IPA|/nk/}} instead of {{IPA|/ŋk/}}. The phoneme sequence {{IPA|/nɡ/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ŋɡ]}} when {{IPAslink|ɡ}} can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed {{IPAslink|ə}}, {{IPAslink|ɪ}}, or {{IPAslink|ʊ}}. It becomes {{IPAblink|ŋ}} otherwise.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wiese |first=Richard |title=The Phonology of German |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |location=Oxford |pages=218–234}}</ref> For example:
**{{lang|de|Diphthong}} {{IPA|/dɪfˈtɔnɡ/ [dɪfˈtɔŋ]}}
**{{lang|de|diphthongieren}} {{IPA|/dɪftɔnˈɡiːrən/ [ˌdɪftɔŋˈɡiːʁən]}}
**{{lang|de|Englisch}} {{IPA|/ˈɛnɡlɪʃ/ [ˈɛŋlɪʃ]}}
**{{lang|de|Anglo}} {{IPA|/ˈanɡloː/ [ˈaŋɡloː]}}
**{{lang|de|Ganges}} {{IPA|/ˈɡanɡəs/ [ˈɡaŋəs]}} ~ {{IPA|/ˈɡanɡɛs/ [ˈɡaŋɡɛs]}}

===''Ich-Laut'' and ''ach-Laut''===<!-- the articles "Ich-Laut" and "Ach-Laut" redirect to this section heading-->
{{More citations needed|section|date=June 2025}}[[File:Velar fronting after ae.pdf|thumb|A map showing the German dialect area with black/white squares indicating the Ich-Laut and the Ach-Laut]]
'''{{lang|de|Ich-Laut}}''' is the [[voiceless palatal fricative]] {{IPAblink|ç}} (which is found in the word {{lang|de|ich}} {{IPA|[ɪç]}} 'I'), and '''{{lang|de|ach-Laut}}''' is the [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPAblink|x}} (which is found in the word {{lang|de|ach}} {{IPA|[ax]}} the interjection 'oh', 'alas'). {{lang|de|Laut}} {{IPA|[laʊ̯t]}} is the German word for 'sound, [[phone (phonetics)|phone]]'. In German, these two sounds are [[allophone]]s occurring in [[complementary distribution]]. The allophone {{IPAblink|x}} occurs after back vowels and {{IPA|/a aː/}} (for instance in {{lang|de|Buch}} {{IPA|[buːx]}} 'book'), the allophone {{IPAblink|ç}} after front vowels (for instance in {{lang|de|mich}} {{IPA|[mɪç]}} 'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in {{lang|de|Furcht}} {{IPA|[fʊʁçt]}} 'fear', {{lang|de|manchmal}} {{IPA|[ˈmançmaːl]}} 'sometimes'). The allophone {{IPAblink|ç}} also appears after vocalized {{angbr|r}} in superregional variants, e.g. in {{lang|de|Furcht}} {{IPA|[fʊɐ̯çt]}} 'fear'. In southeastern regiolects, the {{lang|de|ach-Laut}} is commonly used here, yielding {{IPA|[fʊɐ̯xt]}}.

In [[loanword]]s, the pronunciation of potential [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] in [[Onset (linguistics)|onsets]] of [[stressed syllable]]s varies: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is {{IPAblink|ç}}, while in Southern varieties, it is {{IPAblink|k}}, and in Western varieties, it is {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (for instance in {{lang|de|China}}: {{IPA|[ˈçiːna]}} vs. {{IPA|[ˈkiːna]}} vs. {{IPA|[ˈʃiːna]}}).

The diminutive [[suffix]] {{lang|de|-chen}} is always pronounced with an {{lang|de|ich-Laut}} {{IPA|[-çən]}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=217}}</ref> Usually, this ending triggers [[Germanic umlaut|umlaut]] (compare for instance {{lang|de|Hund}} {{IPA|[hʊnt]}} 'dog' to {{lang|de|Hündchen}} {{IPA|[ˈhʏntçn̩]}} 'little dog'), so theoretically, it could only occur after [[front vowel]]s. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word {{lang|de|Frauchen}} {{IPA|[ˈfʁaʊ̯çən]}} (a [[diminutive]] of {{lang|de|Frau}} 'woman'), so that a back vowel is followed by a {{IPAblink|ç}}, even though normally it would be followed by a {{IPAblink|x}}, as in {{lang|de|rauchen}} {{IPA|[ˈʁaʊ̯xən]}} ('to smoke'). This exception to the allophonic distribution may be an effect of the morphemic boundary or an example of ''[[phonemic differentiation#Phonemic splits|phonemicization]]'', where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate [[phoneme]]s.

The allophonic distribution of {{IPAblink|ç}} after front vowels and {{IPAblink|x}} after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as [[Scots language|Scots]], e.g. ''licht'' {{IPA|[lɪçt]}} 'light', ''dochter'' {{IPA|[ˈdɔxtər]}} 'daughter', and the same distribution is reconstructed for [[Middle English]]. However, it is by no means inevitable: [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], and many Southern German dialects retain {{IPAblink|x}} (which can be realized as {{IPAblink|χ}} instead) in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that [[Old High German]] ''ih'', the ancestor of modern {{lang|de|ich}}, was pronounced with {{IPAblink|x}} rather than {{IPAblink|ç}}. While it is impossible to know for certain whether [[Old English language|Old English]] words such as ''niht'' (modern ''night'') were pronounced with {{IPAblink|x}} or {{IPAblink|ç}}, {{IPAblink|ç}} is likely (see [[Old English phonology#Dorsal consonants|Old English phonology]]).

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of {{IPAblink|ç}} and {{IPAblink|x}} in modern [[Standard German]] is better described as backing of {{IPAslink|ç}} after a [[back vowel]], rather than fronting of {{IPAslink|x}} after a [[front vowel]], because {{IPAblink|ç}} is used in [[Syllable onsets|onsets]] ({{lang|de|Chemie}} {{IPA|[çeˈmiː]}} 'chemistry') and after consonants ({{lang|de|Molch}} {{IPA|[mɔlç]}} 'newt'), and is thus the [[underlying form]] of the phoneme.

According to Kohler,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1977}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1990}}, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Wiese|1996|p=210}}</ref> the German {{lang|de|ach-Laut}} is further differentiated into two allophones, {{IPAblink|x}} and {{IPAblink|χ}}: {{IPAblink|x}} occurs after {{IPA|/uː, oː/}} (for instance in {{lang|de|Buch}} {{IPA|[buːx]}} 'book') and {{IPAblink|χ}} after {{IPA|/a, aː/}} (for instance in {{lang|de|Bach}} {{IPA|[baχ]}} 'brook'), while either {{IPAblink|x}} or {{IPAblink|χ}} may occur after {{IPA|/ʊ, ɔ, aʊ̯/}}, with {{IPAblink|χ}} predominating.

In Western varieties, there is a strong tendency to realize {{IPAslink|ç}} as unrounded {{IPAblink|ʃ}} or {{IPAblink|ɕ}}, and the phoneme may be confused or merged with {{IPAslink|ʃ}} altogether, secondarily leading to [[hypercorrection]] effects where {{IPAslink|ʃ}} is replaced with {{IPAslink|ç}}, for instance in {{lang|de|Fisch}} {{IPA|[fɪʃ]}}, which may be realized as {{IPA|[fɪç]}}.

Within German dialects, a large variation exists as to the environments which trigger or prevent one realization or the other.{{sfnp|Hall|2022|pp=455ff}}

===Fortis–lenis pairs===
Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same [[place of articulation]] and in the same [[manner of articulation]], namely the pairs {{IPA|/p–b/}}, {{IPA|/t–d/}}, {{IPA|/k–ɡ/}}, {{IPA|/s–z/}}, {{IPA|/ʃ–ʒ/}}. These pairs are often called [[Fortis and lenis|fortis–lenis]] pairs, since describing them as voiced–voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications, {{IPA|/tʃ–dʒ/}}, {{IPA|/f–v/}} and {{IPA|/θ–ð/}} are also considered fortis–lenis pairs.

Fortis-lenis distinction for {{IPA|/ʔ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, h/}} is unimportant.<ref name=folemangold>{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=56}}</ref>

The fortis stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} are [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] in many varieties. The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a [[stressed syllable]] (such as {{lang|de|Taler}} {{IPA|[ˈtʰaːlɐ]}} 'thaler'), weaker in the [[Onset (linguistics)|onset]] of an [[unstressed syllable]] (such as {{lang|de|Vater}} {{IPA|[ˈfaːtʰɐ]}} 'father'), and weakest in the [[syllable coda]] (such as in {{lang|de|Saat}} {{IPA|[zaːtʰ]}} 'seed'). All fortis consonants, i.e. {{IPA|/p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, ç, x, pf, ts, tʃ/}}<ref name=folemangold/> are fully voiceless.<ref name=vlessfortis>{{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005|p=55}}</ref>

The lenis consonants {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, j, r, dʒ/}}<ref name=folemangold/> range from being weakly voiced to almost voiceless {{IPA|[b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, v̥, ð̥, z̥, ʒ̊, j̥, r̥, d̥ʒ̊]}} after voiceless consonants:<ref name=vlessfortis/> {{lang|de|Kas'''b'''ah}} {{IPA|[ˈkasb̥a]}} ('kasbah'), {{lang|de|ab'''d'''anken}} {{IPA|[ˈapd̥aŋkn̩]}} ('to resign'), {{lang|de|rot'''g'''elb}} {{IPA|[ˈʁoːtɡ̊ɛlp]}} ('red-yellow'), {{lang|de|Ab'''w'''urf}} {{IPA|[ˈapv̥ʊʁf]}} ('dropping'), {{lang|de|Ab'''s'''icht}} {{IPA|[ˈapz̥ɪçt]}} ('intention'), {{lang|de|Holz'''j'''alousie}} {{IPA|[ˈhɔltsʒ̊aluziː]}} ('wooden [[Jalousie window|jalousie]]'), {{lang|de|weg'''j'''agen}} {{IPA|[ˈvɛkj̥aːɡn̩]}} ('to chase away'), {{lang|de|t'''r'''opfen}} {{IPA|[ˈtʁ̥ɔpfn̩]}} ('to drop'), {{lang|de|Obst'''j'''uice}} {{IPA|[ˈoːpstd̥ʒ̊uːs]}} ('fruit juice'). {{Harvcoltxt|Mangold|2005}} states that they are "to a large extent voiced" {{IPA|[b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, j, r, dʒ]}} in all other environments,<ref name=folemangold/> but some studies have found the stops {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} to be voiceless utterance-initially in most dialects (and word-initially if the preceding sounds are voiceless, see above). In these cases, they still contrast with {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} due to the aspiration of the latter.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jessen|Ringen|2002|p=189-190}}</ref> Due to this variability, there are disagreements about the phonological nature of the contrast: while some phonologists analyse the lenes stops as underlyingly voiced, others consider the relevant feature to be tenseness or spreading of the glottis (with the fortis stops being tense or articulated with spread glottis.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jessen|Ringen|2002|p=189}}</ref>

{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, z, ʒ/}} are [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as {{IPA|[b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, z̥, ʒ̊]}}.

The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that one of these characteristics implies the other.

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the [[syllable onset]]; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases.

The pair {{IPA|/f–v/}} is not considered a fortis–lenis pair, but a simple voiceless–voiced pair, as {{IPAslink|v}} remains [[voiced]] in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that [[Devoiced|devoice]] the lenes (with however some exceptions).<ref>{{clarify span|text=[v] written {{lang|de|v}}|explain=Mixing orthography with phonology; what's the phonological analysis here?|date=April 2013}} can devoice in nearly every place once the word has become common; {{lang|de|w}} is devoiced in {{lang|de|Möwe, Löwe}}. On the other hand, the keeping to the variety is so standard that {{lang|de|doof}} {{IPA|[doːf]}} induced the writing "(der) doofe" even though the standard pronunciation of the latter word is {{IPA|[ˈdoːvə]}}</ref> Generally, the southern {{IPAslink|v}} is realized as the voiced [[approximant]] {{IPAblink|ʋ}}. However, there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis {{IPAslink|f}} (such as in {{lang|de|sträflich}} {{IPA|[ˈʃtʁɛːflɪç]}} 'culpable' from [[Middle High German]] stræflich) and a lenis {{IPAslink|f}} ({{IPA|[v̥]}}, such as in {{lang|de|höflich}} {{IPA|[ˈhøːv̥lɪç]}} 'polite' from Middle High German ''hovelîch''); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis {{IPAslink|s}} ({{IPAblink|s}}) and lenis {{IPA|[z̥]}}.

====Coda devoicing====
In varieties from Northern Germany, lenis stops in the [[syllable coda]] are realized as fortis stops. This does not happen in varieties from Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland.{{refn|See {{harvtxt|Ammon|Bickel|Ebner|Esterhammer|2004|page=LVII}}.}}

Phonologists who believe that the relevant feature behind the fortes-lenes contrast is not [[Voice (phonetics)|phonetic voice]]<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jessen|Ringen|2002|p=190}}</ref> have also argued that this cannot be called devoicing in the strict sense of the word because it does not involve the loss of voice.<ref name="uiowa.edu">{{Harvcoltxt|Beckman|Jessen|Ringen|2009|p=233}}</ref> In their view, it can be called coda [[fortition]] or a [[Phoneme#Neutralization, archiphoneme, and underspecification|neutralization]] of fortis and lenis sounds in the coda. Fricatives, on the other hand, are acknowledged to be truly and contrastively voiced in Northern Germany{{refn|In Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland there is no phonetic voice in fricatives either, see {{harvtxt|Ammon|Bickel|Ebner|Esterhammer|2004|page=LVII}}.}}, so they can be said to undergo [[Final-obstruent devoicing|coda devoicing]] according to this account as well.<ref name="uiowa.edu"/> It is disputed whether coda devoicing is due to a constraint which specifically operates on syllable codas or whether it arises from constraints which "protect voicing in privileged positions".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Beckman|Jessen|Ringen|2009|pp=264–265}}</ref>

==Stress==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2023}}
In German words there is always one syllable carrying main stress, with all other syllables either being unstressed or carrying a secondary stress. The position of the main stress syllable has been a matter of debate. Traditionally, word stress is seen as falling onto the first stem syllable. In recent analyses, there is agreement that main stress is placed onto one of the last three (stressable) syllables. Within this ''three-syllable window'',<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vennemann|first=Theo|title=Neuere Entwicklungen in der Phonologie|publisher=de Gruyter|year=1986|isbn=3-11-010980-8|location=Berlin|language=German}}</ref> word stress is put regularly onto the second-to-last syllable, the penultimate syllable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wiese |first=Richard |title=The Phonology of German |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0198299508 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |pages=276–287 |language=English |author-link=Richard Wiese (linguist)}}</ref> However, syllable quantity may modify this pattern: a heavy final or prefinal syllable, i.e., one with a long vowel or with one or more consonants in the syllable coda, will usually attract main stress.

;Examples:
* final stress: ''Eleˈfant'', ''Krokoˈdil'', ''Kaˈmel''
* penultimate stress: ''<nowiki/>ˈTurban, ˈKonsul, ˈBison''
* antepenultimate stress: ''<nowiki/>ˈPinguin'', ''<nowiki/> ˈRisiko'', ''<nowiki/>ˈMonitor''

A set of illustrative examples also stems from Japanese loan words, as these cannot be borrowed with their stress patterns ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] has a system of pitch accents, completely different from word stress in Germanic languages):

*final stress: ''Shoˈgun'', ''Samuˈrai''
* penultimate stress: ''Mitsuˈbishi'', ''Ikeˈbana''
* antepenultimate stress: ''Hiˈroshima'', '' ˈOsaka''

A list of [[:de:Liste deutscher Wörter aus dem Japanischen|Japanese words in German]] reveals that none of the words with four syllables has initial stress, confirming the ''three-syllable-window'' analysis.

Secondary stresses precede the main stress if at least two syllables are present, as in ''̩Bib-li- ̩o-the-'ka-rin''.

Suffixes, if containing a stressable vowel, are either stressed (''-ei, ion, -al'', etc.) or unstressed (''-ung, -heit, -isch'', etc.)

In addition, German uses different stresses for separable [[prefix]]es and inseparable prefixes in verbs and words derived from such verbs:
* Words beginning with {{lang|de|be-}}, {{lang|de|ge-}}, {{lang|de|er-}}, {{lang|de|ver-}}, {{lang|de|zer-}}, {{lang|de|ent-}}, {{lang|de|emp-}} and a few other inseparable prefixes are stressed on the root.
* Words beginning with the separable prefixes {{lang|de|ab-}}, {{lang|de|auf-}}, {{lang|de|ein-}}, {{lang|de|vor-}}, and most [[prepositional adverb]]s are stressed on the prefix.
* Some prefixes, notably {{lang|de|über-}}, {{lang|de|unter-}}, {{lang|de|um-}}, and {{lang|de|durch-}}, can function as separable or inseparable prefixes and are stressed or not accordingly.
* A few homographs with such prefixes exist. They are not perfect homophones. Consider the word {{lang|de|umschreiben}}. As {{lang|de|ˈum•schreiben}} (separable prefix), it means 'to rewrite' and is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈʊmʃʁaɪ̯bən]}}, with stress on the first syllable. Its associated noun, {{lang|de|die ˈUmschreibung}} is also stressed on the first syllable – {{IPA|[ˈʊmʃʁaɪ̯bʊŋ]}}. On the other hand, {{lang|de|umˈschreiben}} (inseparable prefix) is pronounced {{IPA|[ʊmˈʃʁaɪ̯bən]}}, with stress on the second syllable. This word means 'to paraphrase', and its associated noun, {{lang|de|die Umˈschreibung}} is also stressed on the second syllable – {{IPA|[ʊmˈʃʁaɪ̯bʊŋ]}}. Another example is the word {{lang|de|umˈfahren}}; with stress on the root ({{IPA|[ʊmˈfaːʁən]}}) it means 'to drive around (an obstacle in the street)', and with stress on the prefix ({{IPA|[ˈʊmfaːʁən]}}) it means 'to run down/over' or 'to knock down'.

==Acquisition==

===General===
Like all infants, German infants go through a [[babbling]] stage in the early phases of phonological acquisition, during which they produce the sounds they will later use in their first words.<ref name="Meibauer 261">{{Harvcoltxt|Meibauer|Demske|Geilfuß-Wolfgang|Pafel|2007|p=261}}</ref> [[Phoneme]] inventories begin with [[Stop consonant|stops]], [[nasal consonant|nasals]], and [[vowel]]s; (contrasting) [[short vowel]]s and [[Liquid consonant|liquids]] appear next, followed by [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] and [[Affricate consonant|affricates]], and finally all other [[German phonology#Consonants|consonants]] and [[consonant cluster]]s.<ref name="Meibauer 263">{{Harvcoltxt|Meibauer|Demske|Geilfuß-Wolfgang|Pafel|2007|p=263}}</ref> Children begin to produce protowords near the end of their first year. These words do not approximate adult forms, yet have a specific and consistent meaning.<ref name="Meibauer 261"/> Early word productions are phonetically simple and usually follow the [[syllable]] structure CV or CVC, although this generalization has been challenged.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Grijzenhout|Joppen|1998|p=1}}</ref> The first [[German phonology#Vowels|vowels]] produced are {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}, and {{IPA|/aː/}}, followed by {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}}, and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, with [[rounded vowel]]s emerging last.<ref name="Meibauer 263"/> German children often use phonological processes to simplify their early word production.<ref name="Meibauer 263"/> For example, they may delete an unstressed syllable ({{lang|de|Schokolade}} 'chocolate' pronounced {{IPA|[ˈlaːdə]}}),<ref name="Meibauer 263"/> or replace a fricative with a corresponding stop ({{lang|de|Dach}} {{IPA|[dax]}} 'roof' pronounced {{IPA|[dak]}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Meibauer|Demske|Geilfuß-Wolfgang|Pafel|2007|p=264}}</ref> One case study found that a 17-month-old child acquiring German replaced the [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA|[x]}} with the nearest available [[continuant]] {{IPA|[h]}}, or deleted it altogether ({{lang|de|Buch}} {{IPA|[buːx]}} 'book' pronounced {{IPA|[buh]}} or {{IPA|[buː]}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Grijzenhout|Joppen|1998|p=12}}</ref>

Prosodically, children prefer bisyllabic words with the pattern strong – weak over monosyllabic words.

===Vowel space development===
In 2009, Lintfert examined the development of [[vowel space]] of German speakers in their first three years of life. During the [[babbling]] stage, vowel distribution has no clear pattern. However, [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]] and [[unstressed vowel]]s already show different distributions in the vowel space. Once word production begins, [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed vowels]] expand in the [[vowel space]], while the [[Vowel height|F<sub>1</sub>]] – [[Vowel backness|F<sub>2</sub>]] vowel space of unstressed vowels becomes more centralized. The majority of infants are then capable of stable production of F<sub>1</sub>.<ref name="Lintfert 159">{{Harvcoltxt|Lintfert|2010|p=159}}</ref> The variability of [[formant]] frequencies among individuals decreases with age.<ref name="Lintfert 138">{{Harvcoltxt|Lintfert|2010|p=138}}</ref> After 24 months, infants expand their vowel space individually at different rates. However, if the parents' utterances possess a well-defined vowel space, their children produce clearly distinguished vowel classes earlier.<ref name="Lintfert 160">{{Harvcoltxt|Lintfert|2010|p=160}}</ref> By about three years old, children command the production of all vowels, and they attempt to produce the four [[cardinal vowel]]s, {{IPA|/y/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/a/}}, at the extreme limits of the F1–F2 vowel space (i.e., the height and backness of the vowels are made extreme by the infants).<ref name="Lintfert 138"/>
<!--=Irrelevant to phonology 
==Grammatical words===
Generally, [[Closed class|closed-class]] grammatical words (e.g. articles and prepositions) are absent from children's speech when they first begin to combine words.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Höhle|Weissenborn|2003|p=122}}</ref> However, children as young as 18 months old show knowledge of these closed-class words when they prefer stories with them, compared to passages with them omitted. Therefore, the absence of these grammatical words cannot be due to perceptual problems.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Höhle|Weissenborn|2003|p=123}}</ref> Researchers tested children's comprehension of four grammatical words: {{lang|de|bis}} {{IPA|[bɪs}}] ('up to'), {{lang|de|von}} {{IPA|[fɔn]}} ('from'), {{lang|de|das}} {{IPA|[das]}} ('the' neuter singular), and {{lang|de|sein}} {{IPA|[zaɪ̯n]}} ('his'). After first being familiarized with the words, eight-month-old children looked longer in the direction of a speaker playing a text passage that contained these previously heard words.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Höhle|Weissenborn|2003|p=125}}</ref> However, this ability is absent in six-month-olds.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Höhle|Weissenborn|2003|p=126}}</ref>-->

===Nasals===
The acquisition of nasals in German differs from that of [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a phonologically closely related language.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Altvater-Mackensen|Fikkert|2007|p=14}}</ref> German children produce proportionately more nasals in [[Syllable onsets|onset position]] (sounds before a vowel in a syllable) than Dutch children do.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Altvater-Mackensen|Fikkert|2007|p=16}}</ref> German children, once they reached 16 months, also produced significantly more nasals in syllables containing [[Mid central vowel|schwa]]s, when compared with Dutch-speaking children.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Altvater-Mackensen|Fikkert|2007|p=19}}</ref> This may reflect differences in the languages the children are being exposed to, although the researchers claim that the development of nasals likely cannot be seen apart from the more general phonological system the child is developing.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Altvater-Mackensen|Fikkert|2007|p=23}}</ref>

===Phonotactic constraints and reading===
A 2006 study examined the acquisition of German in [[Speech-Language Pathology|phonologically delayed]] children (specifically, issues with fronting of [[Velar consonant|velars]] and stopping of fricatives) and whether they applied [[phonotactics|phonotactic constraints]] to word-initial [[consonant cluster]]s containing these modified consonants.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ott|van de Vijver|Höhle|2006|p=323}}</ref> In many cases, the subjects (mean age = 5.1) avoided making phonotactic violations, opting instead for other consonants or clusters in their speech. This suggests that phonotactic constraints do apply to the speech of German children with phonological delay, at least in the case of word-initial consonant clusters.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ott|van de Vijver|Höhle|2006|p=331}}</ref> Additional research<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Goswami|Ziegler|Richardson|2005|p=362}}</ref> has also shown that spelling consistencies seen in German raise children's [[phonemic awareness]] as they acquire reading skills.

==Sound changes==

===Sound changes and mergers===
A common [[Merger (phonology)|merger]] is that of {{IPA|/ɡ/}} at the end of a syllable with {{IPA|[ç]}} or {{IPA|[x]}}, for instance {{lang|de|Krieg}} {{IPA|[kʁ̥iː'''ç''']}} ('war'), but {{lang|de|Kriege}} {{IPA|[ˈkʁ̥iː'''ɡ'''ə]}} ('wars'); {{lang|de|er lag}} {{IPA|[laː'''x''']}} ('he lay'), but {{lang|de|wir lagen}} {{IPA|[ˈlaː'''ɡ'''ən]}} ('we lay'). This pronunciation is frequent all over central and northern Germany. It is characteristic of regional languages and dialects, particularly [[Low German]] in the North, where {{angbr|g}} represents a [[Fricative consonant|fricative]], becoming [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] in the [[syllable coda]], as is common in German ([[final-obstruent devoicing]]). However common it is, this pronunciation is considered sub-standard. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending {{lang|de|-ig}} (which corresponds to English ''-y''), the fricative pronunciation of final {{angbr|g}} is prescribed by the [[Theodor Siebs|Siebs]] standard, for instance {{lang|de|wichtig}} {{IPA|[ˈvɪçtɪç]}} ('important'), {{lang|de|Wichtigkeit}} {{IPA|[ˈvɪçtɪçkaɪt]}} ('importance'). The merger occurs neither in [[Austro-Bavarian]] and [[Alemannic German]] nor in the corresponding varieties of [[Standard German]], and therefore in these regions {{lang|de|-ig}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ɪɡ̊]}}.

Many speakers do not distinguish the [[affricate]] {{IPA|/pf/}} from the simple [[fricative]] {{IPA|/f/}} in the beginning of a word,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Krech|Stock|Hirschfeld|Anders|2009|p=108}}</ref> in which case the verb {{lang|de|(er) fährt}} ('[he] travels') and the noun {{lang|de|Pferd}} ('horse') are both pronounced {{IPA|[fɛɐ̯t]}}. This most commonly occurs in northern and western Germany, where the local dialects did not originally have the sound {{IPA|/pf/}}. Some speakers also have peculiar pronunciation for {{IPA|/pf/}} in the middle or end of a word, replacing the {{IPA|[f]}} in {{IPA|/pf/}} with a [[voiceless bilabial fricative]], i.e. a consonant produced by pressing air flow through the tensed lips. Thereby {{lang|de|Tropfen}} ('drop') becomes {{IPA|[ˈtʁ̥ɔpɸn̩]}}, rather than {{IPA|[ˈtʁ̥ɔpfn̩]}}.

Many speakers who have a vocalization of {{IPA|/r/}} after {{IPA|/a/}} merge this combination with long {{IPA|/aː/}} (i.e. {{IPA|/ar/}} > {{IPA|*[aɐ]}} or {{IPA|*[ɑɐ]}} > {{IPA|[aː]}} or {{IPA|[ɑː]}}). Hereby, {{lang|de|Schaf}} ('sheep') and {{lang|de|scharf}} ('sharp') can both be pronounced {{IPA|[ʃaːf]}} or {{IPA|[ʃɑːf]}}. This merger does not occur where {{IPA|/a/}} is a front vowel while {{IPA|/aː/}} is realised as a back vowel. Here the words are kept distinct as {{IPA|[ʃɑːf]}} ('sheep') and {{IPA|[ʃaːf]}} ('sharp').

In umlaut forms, the difference usually reoccurs: {{lang|de|Schäfer}} {{IPA|[ˈʃɛːfɐ]}} or {{IPA|{{IPA|[ˈʃeːfɐ]}}}} vs. {{lang|de|schärfer}} {{IPA|[ˈʃɛɐ̯fɐ]}}. Speakers with this merger also often use {{IPA|[aːç]}} (instead of formally normal {{IPA|/aːx/}}) where it stems from original {{IPA|[arç]}}. The word {{lang|de|Archen}} ('arks') is thus pronounced {{IPA|[ˈaːçn̩]}}, which makes a minimal pair with {{lang|de|[[Aachen]]}} {{IPA|[ˈaːxn̩]}}, arguably making the difference between {{IPA|[ç]}} and {{IPA|[x]}} [[phonem]]ic, rather than just [[allophone|allophonic]], for these speakers.

In the standard pronunciation, the vowel qualities {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, as well as {{IPA|/uː/}}, {{IPA|/ʊ/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, are all still distinguished even in unstressed syllables. In this latter case, however, many simplify the system in various degrees. For some speakers, this may go so far as to merge all four into one, hence misspellings by schoolchildren such as {{lang|de|Bräut'''e'''gam}} (instead of {{lang|de|Bräut'''i'''gam}}) or {{lang|de|Port'''o'''gal}} (instead of ''Port'''u'''gal'').

In everyday speech, more [[Merger (phonology)|mergers]] occur, some of which are universal and some of which are typical for certain regions or dialect backgrounds. Overall, there is a strong tendency of reduction and contraction. For example, long vowels may be shortened, consonant clusters may be simplified, word-final {{IPA|[ə]}} may be dropped in some cases, and the suffix {{lang|de|-en}} may be contracted with preceding consonants, e.g. {{IPA|[ham]}} for {{lang|de|haben}} {{IPA|[ˈhaːbən]}} ('to have').

If the clusters {{IPA|[mp]}}, {{IPA|[lt]}}, {{IPA|[nt]}}, or {{IPA|[ŋk]}} are followed by another consonant, the stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} usually lose their phonemic status. Thus while the standard pronunciation distinguishes {{lang|de|ganz}} {{IPA|[ɡants]}} ('whole') from {{lang|de|Gans}} {{IPA|[ɡans]}} ('goose'), as well as {{lang|de|er sinkt}} {{IPA|[zɪŋkt]}} from {{lang|de|er singt}} {{IPA|[zɪŋt]}}, the two pairs are homophones for most speakers. The commonest practice is to drop the stop (thus {{IPA|[ɡans]}}, {{IPA|[zɪŋt]}} for both words), but some speakers insert the stop where it is not etymological ({{IPA|[ɡants]}}, {{IPA|[zɪŋkt]}} for both words), or they alternate between the two ways. Only a few speakers retain a phonemic distinction.

===Middle High German===
The [[Middle High German]] vowels {{IPA|[ei̯]}} and {{IPA|[iː]}} developed into the modern [[Standard German]] diphthong {{IPA|[aɪ̯]}}, whereas {{IPA|[ou̯]}} and {{IPA|[uː]}} developed into {{IPA|[aʊ̯]}}. For example, Middle High German {{lang|gmh|heiz}} {{IPA|/hei̯s/}} and {{lang|gmh|wîz}} {{IPA|/wiːs/}} ('hot' and 'white') became Standard German {{lang|de|heiß}} {{IPA|/haɪ̯s/}} and {{lang|de|weiß}} {{IPA|/vaɪ̯s/}}. In some dialects, the Middle High German vowels have not changed, e.g. [[Swiss German]] {{lang|de|heiss}} {{IPA|/hei̯s/}} and {{lang|de|wiiss}} {{IPA|/viːs/}}, while in other dialects or languages, the vowels have changed but the distinction is kept, e.g. [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]] {{lang|bar|hoaß}} {{IPA|/hɔɐ̯s/}} and {{lang|bar|weiß}} {{IPA|/vaɪ̯s/}}, [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] {{lang|ksh|heeß}} {{IPA|/heːs/}} and {{lang|ksh|wieß}} {{IPA|/viːs/}} (however the [[Colognian dialect]] has kept the original [ei] diphthong in {{lang|ksh|heiß}}), [[Yiddish]] {{lang|yi|הײס}} ''{{Transliteration|yi|heys}}'' {{IPA|/hɛɪ̯s/}} and {{lang|yi|װײַס}} ''{{Transliteration|yi|vays}}'' {{IPA|/vaɪ̯s/}}.

The Middle High German [[diphthong]]s {{IPA|[iə̯]}}, {{IPA|[uə̯]}} and {{IPA|[yə̯]}} became the modern [[Standard German]] long vowels {{IPA|[iː]}}, {{IPA|[uː]}} and {{IPA|[yː]}} after the Middle High German long vowels changed to diphthongs. Most [[Upper German]] dialects retain the diphthongs. A remnant of their former diphthong character is shown when {{IPA|[iː]}} continues to be written {{lang|de|ie}} in German (as in {{lang|de|Liebe}} 'love').

==Loanwords==

German incorporates a significant number of [[loanword]]s from other languages. Loanwords are often adapted to German phonology but to varying degrees, depending on the speaker and the commonness of the word. {{IPA|/ʒ/}} and {{IPA|/dʒ/}} do not occur in native German words but are common in a number of French and English loan words. Many speakers replace them with {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/tʃ/}} respectively (especially in Southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland), so that {{lang|de|Dschungel}} (from English ''jungle'') can be pronounced {{IPA|[ˈdʒʊŋl̩]}} or {{IPA|[ˈtʃʊŋl̩]}}. Some speakers in Northern and Western Germany merge {{IPA|/ʒ/}} with {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, so that {{lang|de|Journalist}} (phonemically {{IPA|/dʒʊrnaˈlɪst ~ ʒʊrnaˈlɪst/}}) can be pronounced {{IPA|[ʒʊɐ̯naˈlɪst]}}, {{IPA|[dʒʊɐ̯naˈlɪst]}} or {{IPA|[ʃʊɐ̯naˈlɪst]}}. The realization of {{IPA|/ʒ/}} as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, however, is uncommon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowiki.ids-mannheim.de/bin/view/AADG/ZhimAnlaut |title=ZhimAnlaut < AADG < TWiki |publisher=Prowiki.ids-mannheim.de |date=2016-04-27 |accessdate=2022-03-20}}</ref>

===Loanwords from English===
Many English words are used in German, especially in technology and pop culture. Some speakers pronounce them similarly to their native pronunciation, but many speakers change non-native phonemes to similar German phonemes (even if they pronounce them in a rather English manner in an English-language setting):
* English {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} are usually pronounced as in RP or General American; some speakers replace them with {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} respectively ([[th-alveolarization]]) e.g. {{lang|de|Thriller}} {{IPA|[ˈθʁɪlɐ ~ ˈsʁɪlɐ]}}.
* English {{IPA|/ɹ/}} can be pronounced the same as in English, i.e. {{IPAblink|ɹ}}, or as the corresponding native German {{IPA|/r/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Rock}} {{IPA|[ʁɔk]}} or {{IPA|[rɔk]}}. German and Austrian speakers tend to be [[Rhoticity in German|variably rhotic]] when using English loanwords.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}
* English {{IPA|/w/}} is often replaced with German {{IPA|/v/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Whisk(e)y}} {{IPA|[ˈvɪskiː]}}.
* word-initial {{IPA|/s/}} is often retained (especially in the South, where word-initial {{IPA|/s/}} is common),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowiki.ids-mannheim.de/bin/view/AADG/SimAnlaut|title=SimAnlaut < AADG < TWiki|website=prowiki.ids-mannheim.de|access-date=7 April 2018}}</ref> but many speakers replace it with {{IPA|/z/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Sound}} {{IPA|[zaʊ̯nt]}}.
* word-initial {{IPA|/st/}} and {{IPA|/sp/}} are usually retained, but some speakers (especially in South Western Germany and Western Austria) replace them with {{IPA|/ʃt/}} and {{IPA|/ʃp/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Steak}} {{IPA|[ʃteɪk]}} or {{IPA|[ʃteːk]}}, {{lang|de|Spray}} {{IPA|[ʃpʁeɪ]}} or {{IPA|[ʃpʁeː]}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowiki.ids-mannheim.de/bin/view/AADG/SteakSprayStSp|title=SteakSprayStSp < AADG < TWiki|website=prowiki.ids-mannheim.de|access-date=7 April 2018}}</ref>
* English {{IPA|/tʃ/}} is usually retained, but in Northern and Western Germany as well as Luxembourg, it is often replaced with {{IPA|/ʃ/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Chips}} {{IPA|[ʃɪps]}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowiki.ids-mannheim.de/bin/view/AADG/ChipsCh|title=ChipsCh < AADG < TWiki|website=prowiki.ids-mannheim.de|access-date=7 April 2018}}</ref>
* In Northern Standard German, [[final-obstruent devoicing]] is applied to English loan words just as to other words e.g. {{lang|de|Airbag}} {{IPA|[ˈɛːɐ̯bɛk]}}, {{lang|de|Lord}} {{IPA|[lɔʁt]}} or {{IPA|[lɔɐ̯t]}}, {{lang|de|Backstage}} {{IPA|[ˈbɛksteːtʃ]}}. However, in Southern Standard German, in Swiss Standard German and Austrian Standard German, final-obstruent devoicing does not occur and so speakers are more likely to retain the original pronunciation of word-final lenes (although realizing them as fortes may occur because of confusing English spelling with pronunciation).
* English {{IPA|/eɪ/}} and {{IPA|/oʊ/}} are often replaced with {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} respectively e.g. {{lang|de|Homepage}} {{IPA|[ˈhoːmpeːtʃ]}}.
* English {{IPA|/æ/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}} are pronounced the same, as German {{IPA|/ɛ/}} ([[met–mat merger]]) e.g. {{lang|de|Backup}} {{IPA|[ˈbɛkap]}}.
* English {{IPA|/ɒ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔː/}} are pronounced the same, as German {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ([[cot–caught merger]]) e.g. {{lang|de|Box}} {{IPA|[bɔks]}}.
* English {{IPA|/ʌ/}} is usually pronounced as German {{IPA|/a/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Cutter}} {{IPA|[ˈkatɐ]}}.
* English {{IPA|/ɜːr/}} is usually pronounced as German {{IPA|/œʁ/}} e.g. {{lang|de|Shirt}} {{IPA|[ʃœʁt]}} or {{IPA|[ʃœɐ̯t]}}.
* English {{IPA|/i/}} is pronounced as {{IPA|/iː/}} ([[happy-tensing]]) e.g. {{lang|de|Whisk(e)y}} {{IPA|[ˈvɪskiː]}}.

===Loanwords from French===
French loanwords, once very numerous, have in part been replaced by native German coinages or more recently English loanwords. Besides {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, they can also contain the characteristic [[nasal vowel]]s {{IPAblink|ãː}}, {{IPAblink|ɛ̃ː}}, {{IPAblink|œ̃ː}} and {{IPAblink|õː}} (always long). However, their status as phonemes is questionable and they are often resolved into sequences either of (short) oral vowel and {{IPAblink|ŋ}} (in the north), or of (long or short) oral vowel and {{IPAblink|n}} or sometimes {{IPAblink|m}} (in the south). For example, {{lang|de|Ballon}} {{IPA|[baˈlõː]}} ('balloon') may be realized as {{IPA|[baˈlɔŋ]}} or {{IPA|[baˈloːn]}}, {{lang|de|Parfüm}} {{IPA|[paʁˈfœ̃ː]}} ('perfume') as {{IPA|[paʁˈfœŋ]}} or {{IPA|[paʁˈfyːm]}} and {{lang|de|Orange}} {{IPA|[oˈʁãːʒə]}} ('orange') as {{IPA|[oˈʁaŋʒə]}} or {{IPA|[oˈʁanʒə]}}.

==Sample==
The sample text is a reading of "[[The North Wind and the Sun]]". The phonemic transcription treats every instance of {{IPA|[ɐ]}} and {{IPA|[ɐ̯]}} as {{IPA|/ər/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}, respectively. The phonetic transcription is a fairly narrow transcription of the educated northern accent. The speaker transcribed in the narrow transcription is 62 years old, and he is reading in a colloquial style.<ref name="Kohler86"/> Aspiration, glottal stops and devoicing of the lenes after fortes are not transcribed.

The audio file contains the whole fable and was recorded by a much younger speaker.

===Phonemic transcription===
{{IPA|/aɪnst ˈʃtrɪtɛn zɪç ˈnɔrtvɪnt ʊnt ˈzɔnɛ&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> veːr fɔn ˈiːnɛn ˈbaɪdɛn voːl deːr ˈʃtɛrkɛrɛ ˈvɛːrɛ&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> als aɪn ˈvandɛrɛr&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> deːr ɪn ˈaɪnɛn ˈvarmɛn ˈmantɛl ɡɛˈhʏlt vaːr&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> dɛs ˈveːɡɛs daˈheːrˌkaːm&nbsp;‖ ziː ˈvʊrdɛn ˈaɪnɪç&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> das ˈdeːrjeːnɪɡɛ fyːr deːn ˈʃtɛrkɛrɛn ˈɡɛltɛn ˈzɔltɛ&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> deːr deːn ˈvandɛrɛr ˈtsvɪŋɛn ˈvʏrdɛ&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈzaɪnɛn ˈmantɛl ˈaptsuːˌneːmɛn&nbsp;‖ deːr ˈnɔrtvɪnt bliːs mɪt ˈalɛr maxt&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈaːbɛr jeː ˈmeːr eːr bliːs&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈdɛstoː ˈfɛstɛr ˈhʏltɛ zɪç deːr ˈvandɛrɛr ɪn ˈzaɪnɛn ˈmantɛl aɪn&nbsp;‖ ˈɛntlɪç ɡaːp deːr ˈnɔrtvɪnt deːn kampf aʊf&nbsp;‖ nuːn ɛrˈvɛrmtɛ diː ˈzɔnɛ diː lʊft mɪt ˈiːrɛn ˈfrɔɪntlɪçɛn ˈʃtraːlɛn&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ʊnt ʃoːn naːx ˈveːnɪɡɛn aʊɡɛnˈblɪkɛn tsoːk deːr ˈvandɛrɛr ˈzaɪnɛn ˈmantɛl aʊs&nbsp;‖ daː ˈmʊstɛ deːr ˈnɔrtvɪnt ˈtsuːɡeːbɛn&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> das diː ˈzɔnɛ fɔn ˈiːnɛn ˈbaɪdɛn deːr ˈʃtɛrkɛrɛ vaːr/}}

{{Listen|filename=NordwindSonne.wav|title=The North Wind and the Sun|description=Traditional fable|format=[[wav]]}}

===Phonetic transcription===
{{IPA|[aɪns ˈʃtʁɪtn̩ zɪç ˈnɔɐ̯tvɪnt ʊntˈz̥ɔnə&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> veːɐ̯ fɔn ˈiːnː ˈbaɪdn̩ voːl deːɐ̯ ˈʃtɛɐ̯kəʁə ˈvɛːʁə&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> als aɪn ˈvandəʁɐ&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> deːɐ̯ ɪn ˈaɪnː ˈvaːɐ̯mn̩ ˈmantl̩ ɡəˈhʏlt vaːɐ̯&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> dəs ˈveːɡəs daˈheːɐ̯kaːm&nbsp;‖ ziː ˈvʊɐ̯dn̩ ˈaɪnɪç&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> das ˈdeːɐ̯jeːnɪɡə fʏɐ̯ deːn ˈʃtɛɐ̯kəʁən ˈɡɛltn̩ ˈzɔltə&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> deːɐ̯ deːn ˈvandəʁɐ ˈtsvɪŋ̍ ˈvʏɐ̯də&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈzaɪnː ˈmantl̩ ˈaptsʊˌneːmː&nbsp;‖ deːɐ̯ ˈnɔɐ̯tvɪnt bliːs mɪt ˈalɐ maxt&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈaːbɐ jeˈmeːɐ̯ eːɐ̯ bliːs&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈdɛsto ˈfɛstɐ ˈhʏltə zɪç deːɐ̯ ˈvandəʁɐ ɪn ˈzaɪnː ˈmantl̩ aɪn&nbsp;‖ ˈɛntlɪç ɡaːp deːɐ̯ ˈnɔɐ̯tvɪnt deːn kampf aʊf&nbsp;‖ nuːn ɛɐ̯ˈvɛɐ̯mtə diː ˈzɔnə diː lʊft mɪt ˈiːɐ̯n̩ ˈfʁɔɪntlɪçn̩ ˈʃtʁaːln̩&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> ʊnt ʃoːnaːx ˈveːnɪɡŋ̍ aʊɡŋ̍ˈblɪkŋ̍ tsoːk deːɐ̯ ˈvandəʁɐ ˈzaɪnː ˈmantl̩ aʊs&nbsp;‖ daː ˈmʊstə deːɐ̯ ˈnɔɐ̯tvɪnt ˈtsuːɡeːbm̩&nbsp;<nowiki>|</nowiki> das diː ˈzɔnə fɔn ˈiːnː ˈbaɪdn̩ deːɐ̯ ˈʃtɛɐ̯kəʁə vaːɐ̯]}}<ref>Source: {{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=88}}. In the original transcription the vowel length is not indicated, apart from where it is phonemic—that is, for the pairs {{IPA|/a/}}–{{IPA|/aː/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}–{{IPA|/ɛː/}}.</ref>

===Orthographic version===
{{lang|de|Einst stritten sich Nordwind und Sonne, wer von ihnen beiden wohl der Stärkere wäre, als ein Wanderer, der in einen warmen Mantel gehüllt war, des Weges daherkam. Sie wurden einig, daß derjenige für den Stärkeren gelten sollte, der den Wanderer zwingen würde, seinen Mantel abzunehmen. Der Nordwind blies mit aller Macht, aber je mehr er blies, desto fester hüllte sich der Wanderer in seinen Mantel ein. Endlich gab der Nordwind den Kampf auf. Nun erwärmte die Sonne die Luft mit ihren freundlichen Strahlen, und schon nach wenigen Augenblicken zog der Wanderer seinen Mantel aus. Da mußte der Nordwind zugeben, daß die Sonne von ihnen beiden der Stärkere war.}}<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Kohler|1999|p=89}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[German orthography]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

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==Further reading==
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|author-link=Theodor Siebs
|year=1969
|title=Deutsche Aussprache
|edition=19th
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|isbn=978-3110003253
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/deutscheaussprac00sieb
}}
*{{Citation
|title=Wielki słownik niemiecko-polski
|year=2014
|orig-year=2010
|publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN
|edition=1st
|isbn=978-83-01-16182-8
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|German phonology}}
* [http://www.nordicnames.de/Aussprache.html Listen to the pronunciation of German first names]

{{Language phonologies}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:German Phonology}}
[[Category:German phonology| ]]