Standard German phonology

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Template:Short description Template:WikiIPA Template:IPA notice The phonology of Standard German is the standard pronunciation or accent of the German language. It deals with current phonology and phonetics as well as with historical developments thereof as well as the geographical variants and the influence of German dialects.

While the spelling of German is officially standardised by an international organisation (the Council for German Orthography) the pronunciation has no official standard and relies on a de facto standard documented in reference works such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al.,<ref>Pages 1-2 of the book ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) discuss {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (the standard pronunciation which is the topic of this dictionary). It also mentions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (German has developed into a pluricentric language separate standard varieties (and hence standard pronunciations)), but refers to these standards as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (regional and sociolectal variants).</ref> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by Max Mangold and the training materials of radio and television stations such as Westdeutscher Rundfunk, Deutschlandfunk, or Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen. This standardised pronunciation was invented, rather than coming from any particular German-speaking city. But the pronunciation that Germans usually consider to be closest to the standard is that of Hanover.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Standard German is sometimes referred to as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (stage German), but the latter has its own definition and is slightly different.<ref>Differences include the pronunciation of the endings {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.</ref>

Vowels

File:Northern Standard German vowel chart.svg
Monophthongs of standard German, from Template:Harvcoltxt

Monophthongs

Monophthong phonemes of Standard German
Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded
short long short long short long short long
Close Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Close-mid Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link
Open-mid Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link
Open Template:IPA link Template:IPA link

Some scholars<ref name="wiese1617&staffeldt">See the discussions in Template:Harvcoltxt and Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> treat {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as an unstressed allophone of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Likewise, some scholars<ref name="wiese1617&staffeldt"/> treat {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as an allophone of the sequence {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or as a vocalic realization of syllabic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The phonemic status of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is also debated – see below.

Notes

  • Close vowels
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is close front unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37">See the vowel charts in Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref><ref name="Kohler87">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="Lodge87">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is close near-front rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is close back rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as near-close front unrounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Lodge87"/> and near-close near-front unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is near-close near-front rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is near-close near-back rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
  • Mid vowels
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is close-mid front unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
      • In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Bavarian and Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as close-mid near-front rounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/> and mid near-front rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/> One sourceTemplate:Sfnp shows it as considerably centralized on the vowel chart (the one shown above), closer to Template:IPAblink than cardinal Template:IPAblink.
      • In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is close-mid back rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
      • In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as mid central unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/> and close-mid central unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> It occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('occupy'). It is often considered a complementary allophone together with Template:IPAblink, which only rarely or regionally occurs in unstressed syllables (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Citation needed If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('pillow'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('donkey'). However, Standard German spoken in Luxembourg often lacks syllabic sonorants under the influence of Luxembourgish, so that e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('put') is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, rather than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as mid near-front unrounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Kohler87"/> and open-mid front unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Lodge87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as mid front unrounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Mangold37"/> and open-mid front unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as open-mid near-front rounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Lodge87"/> and somewhat lowered open-mid near-front rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/> and open-mid back rounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/>
  • Open vowels
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is near-open central unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler88">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> It is a common allophone of the sequence {{#invoke:IPA|main}} common to all German-speaking areas but Switzerland. As schwa /ə/ is never pronounced here, it is also possible to interpret Template:IPAblink as the vocalic allophone of the syllabic sonorant /r̩/.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as open front unrounded Template:IPAblink<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> and open central unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/><ref name="Wiese8">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="Krechetal24">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Some scholars<ref>E.g. Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> differentiate two short {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, namely front {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and back {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. Authors state that {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be realized as Polish {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. central {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.</ref> The latter occurs only in unstressed open syllables, exactly as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
    • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as open central unrounded Template:IPAblink<ref name="Mangold37"/><ref name="Kohler87"/><ref name="Lodge87"/><ref name="Wiese8"/><ref name="Krechetal24"/> and open back unrounded Template:IPAblink.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Because of this, it is sometimes transcribed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>e.g. by Template:Harvcoltxt (without length marks, i.e. as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}—the vowel chart on page 87 places {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the same open central position {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), Template:Harvcoltxt (without length marks, i.e. as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref>
      • Back Template:IPAblink is the Standard Austrian pronunciation.<ref name="moosjipa342344"/> It is also a common realization of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in northern German varieties influenced by Low German (in which it may even be rounded Template:IPAblink).
    • Template:Harvcoltxt notes that "there is a tendency to neutralize the distinction between {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. That is, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} have final syllables which are perceptually very similar, and are nearly or completely identical in some dialects."<ref name="Wiese254">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> He also says that "outside of a word context, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} cannot be distinguished from {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="Wiese254"/> (As early as 1847, Verdi's librettist found it natural, when adapting a play by Schiller into the Italian language, to render the distinctly German name Roller as Rolla.)
    • According to the 7th edition of Das Aussprachewörterbuch, the standard pronunciation differentiates {{#invoke:IPA|main}} from unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (which typically belongs to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} phoneme, see below). The authors claim that the difference is one of height: Template:IPAblink vs. Template:IPAblink. However, they tend to be neutralized in the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region towards an open central Template:IPAblink. Conversely, in southern Germany, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often realized as Template:IPAblink (in turn, Standard {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often closer to Template:IPAblink). In Franconia and partially also in the coastal regions of Germany, the vowel is closer to Template:IPAblink, whereas in west-central Germany it is slightly more open, that is Template:IPAblink. In each case but the first one, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is strongly differentiated from {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. In regions without r-vocalization, the difference is always present.Template:Sfnp
    • According to a 2020 study, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is not distinguished from unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Northern Standard German. Word pairs such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'opera' (traditionally transcribed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'grandpa' (traditionally transcribed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) are thus homophones (as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), rather than minimal pairs. The merged vowel has a centralized quality Template:IPAblink. The authors of the study advocate for ditching the distinction in transcriptions aimed at foreign learners of German. This neutralization may not apply to all dialects with r-vocalization, particularly the southern ones.Template:Sfnp

Although there is also a length contrast, vowels are often analyzed according to a tenseness contrast, with long {{#invoke:IPA|main}} being the tense vowels and short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} their lax counterparts. Like the English checked vowels, the German lax vowels require a following consonant, with the notable exception of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (which is absent in many varieties, as discussed below). {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is sometimes considered the lax counterpart of tense {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in order to maintain this tense/lax division. Short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} occur in unstressed syllables of loanwords, for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('psychometry'). They are usually considered allophones of tense vowels (thus {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), which cannot occur in unstressed syllables (unless in compounds). {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is similarly shortened in those positions, with the difference being that it is shortened also in native words, such as aforementioned {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'grandpa' (phonemically {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).

In dialects with r-vocalization, historical {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (phonetically typically a long monophthong Template:IPAblink) may undergo a shortening akin to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when unstressed, as in one pronunciation of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'radar' as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (phonemically {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).<ref name="Wiese254"/> An analogous process has taken place in Danish, as in the cognate {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, meaning the same.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Northern German varieties influenced by Low German could be analyzed as lacking contrasting vowel quantity entirely:

  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has a different quality than {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (see above).
  • These varieties also consistently lack {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and use only {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in its place.Template:Citation neededTemplate:Fix

Phonemic status of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

The existence of a phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in German is disputed.Template:Sfn The distinction between the long lax {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and the long tense {{#invoke:IPA|main}} does not exist in some varieties of Standard German, and many authors treat the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} phoneme as peripheral and regard a distinction between it and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as a spelling pronunciation.Template:Sfn Most commonly, they are merged before an intervocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, so that potential minimal pairs such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'ear of grain' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'honor' or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bears' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'berries' are rendered homophonous, as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Some authors claim that no distinction between {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is possible in this position unless in hypercorrect pronunciation, in which {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} may be pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with a tense {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfnp Other authors claim that there is regional variation, a distinction occurring especially in southern varieties of Standard German.Template:Sfnp In contexts other than before intervocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, the contrast between {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is more stable, so that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'bid, conjunctive', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'Danes' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('saws, n.') may be differentiated from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'to pray', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'to stretch' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'blessing'. Even here the vowels can merge, but to a tense {{#invoke:IPA|main}}: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfnp Scholars who question the existence of a phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} do so for the following reasons:

  1. The existence of a phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is an irregularity in a vowel system that otherwise has pairs of long and tense vs. short and lax vowels such as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn On the other hand, such irregularities are not ruled out by any principle.Template:Citation needed
  2. The phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has developed out of the spelling of the language rather than from any historical sound change.Template:Sfn Most examples of Middle High German /ǣ/ correspond to New High German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} rather than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, indicating that the modern {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is not a regular development.Template:Sfn
  3. Although some dialects (e.g. Ripuarian and some Alemannic dialects) have an opposition of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, their usage does not follow that of the standard.Template:Sfn There is also little agreement across dialects as to whether individual lexical items should be pronounced with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. E.g. South Hessian dialects have {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Käse but {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Leben.<ref>Südhessisches Wörterbuch online</ref>Template:Better source needed
  4. The use of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is a spelling pronunciation rather than an original feature of the language. It is an attempt to "speak as printed" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and to differentiate the spellings Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr (i.e. speakers attempt to justify the appearance of Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr in writing by making them distinct in the spoken language).<ref name="bären=beeren">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>Template:Sfn

Diphthongs

Phonemic

File:Northern Standard German diphthong chart.svg
Diphthongs of standard German, from Template:Harvcoltxt
Ending point
Front Back
Near-close main}})
Open-mid main}}
Open main}} main}}
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="Mangold37" /><ref name="WieseDiph">Source: Template:Harvcoltxt. On the page 14, the author states that {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are of the same quality as vowels of which they consist. On the page 8, he states that {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is low central.</ref> {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="Kohler87D">See vowel chart in Template:Harvcoltxt. Despite their true ending points, Kohler still transcribes them as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. with higher offsets than those actually have.</ref> and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Source: Template:Harvcoltxt. Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Instead, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the unrounded open vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and the unrounded mid front vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}."</ref>
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="WieseDiph"/> {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="Mangold37"/> {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="Kohler87D"/> and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Source: Template:Harvcoltxt. Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Instead, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the unrounded open vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and the rounded mid back vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}."</ref>
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has been variously described as {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="WieseDiph"/> {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="Mangold37"/> {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="Kohler87D"/> and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Instead, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the rounded mid back vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and the rounded mid front vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}."</ref>
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found only in a handful of interjections such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and as an alternative to disyllabic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in words such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Phonetic

The following usually are not counted among the German diphthongs as German speakers often feel they are distinct marks of "foreign words" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). These appear only in loanwords:

  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, colloquially: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • Many German speakers use {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as adaptations of the English diphthongs Template:IPAc-en and Template:IPAc-en in English loanwords, according to Template:Harvcoltxt, or they replace them with the native German long vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Thus, the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} may be pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="Wiese12">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> However, Template:Harvcoltxt and Template:Harvcoltxt do not recognize these diphthongs as phonemes, and prescribe pronunciations with the long vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead.

In the varieties where speakers vocalize {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to Template:IPAblink in the syllable coda, a diphthong ending in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be formed with every stressable vowel:

File:German ɐ diphthongs chart - part 1.svg
main}} (part 1), from Template:Harvcoltxt
File:German ɐ diphthongs chart - part 2.svg
main}} (part 2), from Template:Harvcoltxt
R-vocalization in Standard German
Diphthong Example
Phonemically Phonetically IPA Orthography Translation
main}} main}} main}} lang}} he/she/it becomes
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[1]}} main}} lang}} we
main}} main}} main}} lang}} dignity
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[2]}} main}} lang}} for
main}} main}} main}} lang}} I/he/she/it became
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[3]}} main}} lang}} holiday
{{#invoke:IPA|main}} main}} main}} lang}} Erft
main}}{{#if:2|2|[4]}} main}} lang}} Opera
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[5]}} main}} lang}} bear
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[6]}} main}} lang}} more
main}} main}} main}} lang}} he/she/it dries
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[7]}} main}} lang}} (thou) hear!
main}} main}} main}} lang}} north
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[8]}} main}} lang}} gate
main}} main}} main}} lang}} hard
main}} main}}{{#if:1|1|[9]}} main}} lang}} true
<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^1{{#if:| }} Template:Harvcoltxt notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="Wiese198">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> and that "Template:Harvcoltxt, following the pronouncing dictionaries (Template:Harvcoltxt, Template:Harvcoltxt) judge the vowel in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to be long, while the vowel in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable."<ref name="Wiese198"/><ref>Also supported by Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref> He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if {{#invoke:IPA|main}} precedes.<ref name="Wiese198"/>
According to the "lengthless" analysis, the aforementioned "long" diphthongs are analyzed as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This makes non-prevocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} homophonous as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Non-prevocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may also merge, but the vowel chart in Template:Harvcoltxt shows that they have somewhat different starting points – mid-centralized open-mid front Template:IPAblink for the former, open-mid front Template:IPAblink for the latter.<ref name="Kohler88"/>
Template:Harvcoltxt also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases."<ref name="Wiese198"/> This leads to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} being pronounced the same as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This merger is usual in the Standard Austrian accent, in which e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bog' is often pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; this, in contrast with the Standard Northern variety, also happens intervocalically, along with the diphthongization of the laxed vowel to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, so that e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'teacher' is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="moosjipa342">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> (the corresponding Standard Northern pronunciation is {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Another feature of the Standard Austrian accent is complete absorption of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} by the preceding {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, so that e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'scarce' is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="moosjipa342"/>
<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^2{{#if:| }} At the end of words only.

Consonants

With around 22 to 26 phonemes, the German consonant system has an average number of consonants in comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual affricate {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>For a detailed discussion of the German consonants from a synchronic and diachronic point of view, see Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref>

Labial Alveolar Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar/
Uvular 		Glottal
Nasal Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Plosive Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)
Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Affricate Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Template:Small (Template:IPA link)
Fricative Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link) Template:IPA link
Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)
Approximant Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Rhotic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be uvular, alveolar or even dental, a consonant or a semivowel, see below.
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is bilabial–labiodental {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, rather than purely labiodental {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="MangoldPF">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are voiceless in Austrian Standard German <ref name="moosjipa341">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> and in most other South German varieties.
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be apical alveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="coronalsa">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. According to this source, only {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be apical alveolar.</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. According to this source, only {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be apical alveolar.</ref><ref>See the x-ray tracing of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Template:Harvcoltxt, based on data from Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref> laminal alveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="coronalsa"/><ref name="coronalsa-krech">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. According to this source, only {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be laminal alveolar.</ref> or laminal denti-alveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="coronalsa"/><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. According to this source, only {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be laminal denti-alveolar.</ref><ref name="coronalsa-pl">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>See the x-ray tracing of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Template:Harvcoltxt, based on data from Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref> The other possible pronunciation of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} that has been reported to occur in unstressed intervocalic positions is retroflex Template:IPAblink.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Austrian German often uses laminal denti-alveolar articulation.
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is always clear {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as in most Irish English accents. A few Austrian accents may use a velarized {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead, but that is considered non-standard.
  • In the Standard Austrian variety, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be affricated to Template:IPAblink before front vowels.<ref name="moosjipa341"/>
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be laminal alveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="coronalsb">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="coronalsb-krech">Template:Harvcoltxt. This source talks only about {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.</ref><ref name="coronalsb-pl">Template:Harvcoltxt This source talks only about {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.</ref> laminal post-dental {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name="coronalsb"/><ref name="coronalsb-pl"/> (i.e. fronted alveolar, articulated with the blade of the tongue just behind upper front teeth),<ref name="coronalsb"/> or even apical alveolar {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="coronalsb"/><ref name="coronalsb-krech"/><ref name="coronalsb-pl"/> {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are always strongly fricated.<ref name="coronalsc">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Austrian German often uses the post-dental articulation for {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are strongly labialized palato-alveolar sibilants {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="MangoldPA">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="KrechPA">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="MorciniecPA">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are fricated more weakly than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="mangold51">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> There are two variants of these sounds:
    • Laminal,<ref name="MangoldPA"/><ref name="MorciniecPA"/> articulated with the foremost part of the blade of the tongue approaching the foremost part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue resting behind either upper or lower front teeth.<ref name="MangoldPA"/>
    • Apico-laminal,<ref name="MangoldPA"/><ref name="KrechPA"/><ref name="MorciniecPA"/> articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the gums and the foremost part of the blade approaching the foremost part of the hard palate.<ref name="MangoldPA"/> According to Template:Harvcoltxt, this variant is used more frequently.<ref name="MorciniecPA"/>
  • {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has a number of possible realizations:
    • Voiced apical coronal trill {{#invoke:IPA|main}},<ref name="coronalsd">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="coronalsd-krech">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref name="coronalsd-pl">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> either alveolar (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge),<ref name="coronalsd"/><ref name="coronalsd-krech"/><ref name="coronalsd-pl"/> or dental (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper front teeth).<ref name="coronalsd"/>
      • Distribution: Common in the south (Bavaria and many parts of Switzerland and Austria), but it is also found in some speakers in central and northern Germany, especially the elderly. It is also one of possible realizations of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the Standard Austrian accent, but a more common alveolar realization is an approximant Template:IPAblink. Even more common are uvular realizations, fricatives {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and a trill Template:IPAblink.<ref name="moosjipa341342">Template:Harvcoltxt: "SAG features a wide variety of realizations of the trill. In approximately the past 40 years, the pronunciation norm has changed from an alveolar to a uvular trill. The latter is mostly pronounced as a fricative, either voiced or voiceless. Alveolar trills are still in use, mostly pronounced as an approximant.</ref>
    • Voiced uvular trill Template:IPAblink,<ref name="coronalsd"/><ref name="coronalsd-krech"/><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> which can be realized as voiceless Template:IPAblink after voiceless consonants (as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref name="coronalsd-krech"/> According to Template:Harvcoltxt it is often a flap Template:IPAblink intervocalically (as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
      • Distribution: Occurs in some conservative varieties—most speakers with a uvular {{#invoke:IPA|main}} realize it as a fricative or an approximant.<ref name="SOWL225">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> It is also one of possible realizations of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the Standard Austrian accent, but it is less common than a fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="moosjipa341342"/>
    • Dorsal continuant, about the quality of which there is not a complete agreement:
      • Template:Harvcoltxt describe two fricative variants, namely post-palatal {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and velar {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The post-palatal variant appears before and after front vowels, while the velar variant is used in all other positions.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
      • Template:Harvcoltxt describe it as a voiced post-velar fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="Morciniec 2005 81">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
      • Template:Harvcoltxt and Template:Harvcoltxt describe it as a voiced uvular fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}};<ref name="coronalsd"/><ref name="Kohler86">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
        • Template:Harvcoltxt states that "with educated professional radio and TV announcers, as with professional actors on the stage and in film, the [voiced uvular] fricative [realization of] {{#invoke:IPA|main}} clearly predominates."<ref name="coronalsd"/>
          • In the Standard Austrian accent, the uvular fricative is also the most common realization, although its voicing is variable (that is, it can be either voiced Template:IPAblink or voiceless Template:IPAblink).<ref name="moosjipa341342"/>
        • Template:Harvcoltxt writes that "the place of articulation of the consonant varies from uvular in e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('red') to velar in e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('kick'), depending on back or front vowel contexts." He also notes that Template:IPAblink is devoiced after voiceless plosives and fricatives, especially those within the same word, giving the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as an example. According to this author, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be reduced to an approximant in an intervocalic position.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
      • Template:Harvcoltxt describe it as a uvular fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or approximant {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The latter is less likely to occur word-initially.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
      • Distribution: Almost all areas apart from Bavaria and parts of Switzerland.
    • Near-open central unrounded vowel Template:IPAblink is a post-vocalic allophone of (mostly dorsal) varieties of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The non-syllabic variant of it is not always near-open or central; it is similar to either Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink, depending on the environment.<ref name="Morciniec 2005 81"/>
      • Distribution: Widespread, but less common in Switzerland.
    • Retroflex approximant [ɻ⁠] realized like the r in Standard American English.
      • Distribution: Middle Hessian between the Wetterau region and the Westerwald<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the Higher Lusatia.

  • The voiceless stops Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink are aspirated except when preceded by a sibilant. Many southern dialects do not aspirate {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and some northern ones do so only in a stressed position. The voiceless affricates {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are never aspirated,<ref name="coronalse">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> and neither are any other consonants besides the aforementioned {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="coronalse"/>
  • The obstruents {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are voiceless lenis consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in southern varieties. Voiceless lenis consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}} continue to contrast with voiceless fortis consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The section Template:Slink covers the issue in more detail.
  • In Austria, intervocalic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be lenited to fricatives {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="moosjipa341"/><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
  • Before and after front vowels ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} and, in varieties that realize them as front, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and/or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), the velar consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are realized as post-palatal {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="wiese-velarpoa">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> According to Template:Harvcoltxt, in a parallel process, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before and after back vowels ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} and, in varieties that realize them as back, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and/or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) are retracted to post-velar {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or even uvular {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="wiese-velarpoa"/>
  • There is no complete agreement about the nature of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; it has been variously described as:
    • a fricative Template:IPAblink,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. The authors transcribe it {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. The author transcribes it {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref>
    • a fricative which can be fricated less strongly than Template:IPAblink,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. The author transcribes it {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref>
    • a sound variable between a weak fricative and an approximant,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt. The author transcribes it {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref> and
    • an approximant Template:IPAblink,<ref name="Kohler86" /><ref name="moosjipa340">Template:Harvcoltxt. The authors transcribe it as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, i.e. as an approximant.</ref> which is the usual realization in the Standard Austrian variety.<ref name="moosjipa340" />
  • In many varieties of standard German, the glottal stop, Template:IPAblink, occurs in careful speech before word stems that begin with a vowel and before stressed vowels word-internally, as in Oase [ʔo.ʔaː.zə] (twice). It is much more frequent in northern varieties than in the south. It is not usually considered a phoneme. In colloquial and dialectal speech, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often omitted, especially when the word beginning with a vowel is unstressed.
  • The phonemic status of affricates is controversial. The majority view accepts Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink, but not Template:IPAslink or the non-native Template:IPAslink; some<ref>e.g. Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> accept none, some accept all but Template:IPAslink, and some<ref>e.g. Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> accept all.
  • Template:IPAblink is occasionally considered to be an allophone of Template:IPAslink, especially in southern varieties of German.
  • Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels, respectively. For a more detailed analysis see below at ich-Laut and ach-Laut. According to some analyses, Template:IPAblink is an allophone of Template:IPAslink after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and according to some also after {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="Kohler88"/><ref name="moosjipa341"/> However, according to Template:Harvcoltxt, the uvular allophone is used after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} only in the Standard Austrian variety.<ref name="moosjipa341"/>
  • Some phonologists do not posit a separate phoneme Template:IPAslink and use {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> along with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The phoneme sequence {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} when Template:IPAslink can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, or Template:IPAslink. It becomes Template:IPAblink otherwise.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> For example:
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
    • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ~ {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

Ich-Laut and ach-Laut

Template:More citations needed

File:Velar fronting after ae.pdf
A map showing the German dialect area with black/white squares indicating the Ich-Laut and the Ach-Laut

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is the voiceless palatal fricative Template:IPAblink (which is found in the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'I'), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is the voiceless velar fricative Template:IPAblink (which is found in the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} the interjection 'oh', 'alas'). {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is the German word for 'sound, phone'. In German, these two sounds are allophones occurring in complementary distribution. The allophone Template:IPAblink occurs after back vowels and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'book'), the allophone Template:IPAblink after front vowels (for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'fear', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'sometimes'). The allophone Template:IPAblink also appears after vocalized Template:Angbr in superregional variants, e.g. in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'fear'. In southeastern regiolects, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is commonly used here, yielding {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

In loanwords, the pronunciation of potential fricatives in onsets of stressed syllables varies: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is Template:IPAblink, while in Southern varieties, it is Template:IPAblink, and in Western varieties, it is Template:IPAblink (for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).

The diminutive suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is always pronounced with an {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Usually, this ending triggers umlaut (compare for instance {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'dog' to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'little dog'), so theoretically, it could only occur after front vowels. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (a diminutive of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'woman'), so that a back vowel is followed by a Template:IPAblink, even though normally it would be followed by a Template:IPAblink, as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to smoke'). This exception to the allophonic distribution may be an effect of the morphemic boundary or an example of phonemicization, where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate phonemes.

The allophonic distribution of Template:IPAblink after front vowels and Template:IPAblink after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as Scots, e.g. licht {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'light', dochter {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'daughter', and the same distribution is reconstructed for Middle English. However, it is by no means inevitable: Dutch, Yiddish, and many Southern German dialects retain Template:IPAblink (which can be realized as Template:IPAblink instead) in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that Old High German ih, the ancestor of modern {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, was pronounced with Template:IPAblink rather than Template:IPAblink. While it is impossible to know for certain whether Old English words such as niht (modern night) were pronounced with Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink is likely (see Old English phonology).

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink in modern Standard German is better described as backing of Template:IPAslink after a back vowel, rather than fronting of Template:IPAslink after a front vowel, because Template:IPAblink is used in onsets ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'chemistry') and after consonants ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'newt'), and is thus the underlying form of the phoneme.

According to Kohler,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt and Template:Harvcoltxt, as cited in Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> the German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is further differentiated into two allophones, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink: Template:IPAblink occurs after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'book') and Template:IPAblink after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'brook'), while either Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink may occur after {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with Template:IPAblink predominating.

In Western varieties, there is a strong tendency to realize Template:IPAslink as unrounded Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink, and the phoneme may be confused or merged with Template:IPAslink altogether, secondarily leading to hypercorrection effects where Template:IPAslink is replaced with Template:IPAslink, for instance in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which may be realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Within German dialects, a large variation exists as to the environments which trigger or prevent one realization or the other.Template:Sfnp

Fortis–lenis pairs

Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same place of articulation and in the same manner of articulation, namely the pairs {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. These pairs are often called fortis–lenis pairs, since describing them as voiced–voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are also considered fortis–lenis pairs.

Fortis-lenis distinction for {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is unimportant.<ref name=folemangold>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

The fortis stops {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are aspirated in many varieties. The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a stressed syllable (such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'thaler'), weaker in the onset of an unstressed syllable (such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'father'), and weakest in the syllable coda (such as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'seed'). All fortis consonants, i.e. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name=folemangold/> are fully voiceless.<ref name=vlessfortis>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

The lenis consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref name=folemangold/> range from being weakly voiced to almost voiceless {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after voiceless consonants:<ref name=vlessfortis/> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('kasbah'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to resign'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('red-yellow'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('dropping'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('intention'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('wooden jalousie'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to chase away'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to drop'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('fruit juice'). Template:Harvcoltxt states that they are "to a large extent voiced" {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in all other environments,<ref name=folemangold/> but some studies have found the stops {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to be voiceless utterance-initially in most dialects (and word-initially if the preceding sounds are voiceless, see above). In these cases, they still contrast with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} due to the aspiration of the latter.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Due to this variability, there are disagreements about the phonological nature of the contrast: while some phonologists analyse the lenes stops as underlyingly voiced, others consider the relevant feature to be tenseness or spreading of the glottis (with the fortis stops being tense or articulated with spread glottis.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

{{#invoke:IPA|main}} are voiceless in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that one of these characteristics implies the other.

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the syllable onset; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases.

The pair {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is not considered a fortis–lenis pair, but a simple voiceless–voiced pair, as Template:IPAslink remains voiced in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that devoice the lenes (with however some exceptions).<ref>Template:Clarify span can devoice in nearly every place once the word has become common; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is devoiced in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. On the other hand, the keeping to the variety is so standard that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} induced the writing "(der) doofe" even though the standard pronunciation of the latter word is {{#invoke:IPA|main}}</ref> Generally, the southern Template:IPAslink is realized as the voiced approximant Template:IPAblink. However, there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis Template:IPAslink (such as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'culpable' from Middle High German stræflich) and a lenis Template:IPAslink ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}, such as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'polite' from Middle High German hovelîch); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis Template:IPAslink (Template:IPAblink) and lenis {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Coda devoicing

In varieties from Northern Germany, lenis stops in the syllable coda are realized as fortis stops. This does not happen in varieties from Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland.Template:Refn

Phonologists who believe that the relevant feature behind the fortes-lenes contrast is not phonetic voice<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> have also argued that this cannot be called devoicing in the strict sense of the word because it does not involve the loss of voice.<ref name="uiowa.edu">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> In their view, it can be called coda fortition or a neutralization of fortis and lenis sounds in the coda. Fricatives, on the other hand, are acknowledged to be truly and contrastively voiced in Northern GermanyTemplate:Refn, so they can be said to undergo coda devoicing according to this account as well.<ref name="uiowa.edu"/> It is disputed whether coda devoicing is due to a constraint which specifically operates on syllable codas or whether it arises from constraints which "protect voicing in privileged positions".<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Stress

Template:More citations needed section In German words there is always one syllable carrying main stress, with all other syllables either being unstressed or carrying a secondary stress. The position of the main stress syllable has been a matter of debate. Traditionally, word stress is seen as falling onto the first stem syllable. In recent analyses, there is agreement that main stress is placed onto one of the last three (stressable) syllables. Within this three-syllable window,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> word stress is put regularly onto the second-to-last syllable, the penultimate syllable.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, syllable quantity may modify this pattern: a heavy final or prefinal syllable, i.e., one with a long vowel or with one or more consonants in the syllable coda, will usually attract main stress.

Examples
  • final stress: Eleˈfant, Krokoˈdil, Kaˈmel
  • penultimate stress: ˈTurban, ˈKonsul, ˈBison
  • antepenultimate stress: ˈPinguin, ˈRisiko, ˈMonitor

A set of illustrative examples also stems from Japanese loan words, as these cannot be borrowed with their stress patterns (Japanese has a system of pitch accents, completely different from word stress in Germanic languages):

  • final stress: Shoˈgun, Samuˈrai
  • penultimate stress: Mitsuˈbishi, Ikeˈbana
  • antepenultimate stress: Hiˈroshima, ˈOsaka

A list of Japanese words in German reveals that none of the words with four syllables has initial stress, confirming the three-syllable-window analysis.

Secondary stresses precede the main stress if at least two syllables are present, as in ̩Bib-li- ̩o-the-'ka-rin.

Suffixes, if containing a stressable vowel, are either stressed (-ei, ion, -al, etc.) or unstressed (-ung, -heit, -isch, etc.)

In addition, German uses different stresses for separable prefixes and inseparable prefixes in verbs and words derived from such verbs:

  • Words beginning with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and a few other inseparable prefixes are stressed on the root.
  • Words beginning with the separable prefixes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and most prepositional adverbs are stressed on the prefix.
  • Some prefixes, notably {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, can function as separable or inseparable prefixes and are stressed or not accordingly.
  • A few homographs with such prefixes exist. They are not perfect homophones. Consider the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. As {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (separable prefix), it means 'to rewrite' and is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with stress on the first syllable. Its associated noun, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is also stressed on the first syllable – {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. On the other hand, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (inseparable prefix) is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with stress on the second syllable. This word means 'to paraphrase', and its associated noun, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is also stressed on the second syllable – {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Another example is the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; with stress on the root ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) it means 'to drive around (an obstacle in the street)', and with stress on the prefix ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) it means 'to run down/over' or 'to knock down'.

Acquisition

General

Like all infants, German infants go through a babbling stage in the early phases of phonological acquisition, during which they produce the sounds they will later use in their first words.<ref name="Meibauer 261">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Phoneme inventories begin with stops, nasals, and vowels; (contrasting) short vowels and liquids appear next, followed by fricatives and affricates, and finally all other consonants and consonant clusters.<ref name="Meibauer 263">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Children begin to produce protowords near the end of their first year. These words do not approximate adult forms, yet have a specific and consistent meaning.<ref name="Meibauer 261"/> Early word productions are phonetically simple and usually follow the syllable structure CV or CVC, although this generalization has been challenged.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> The first vowels produced are {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, followed by {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, with rounded vowels emerging last.<ref name="Meibauer 263"/> German children often use phonological processes to simplify their early word production.<ref name="Meibauer 263"/> For example, they may delete an unstressed syllable ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chocolate' pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}),<ref name="Meibauer 263"/> or replace a fricative with a corresponding stop ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'roof' pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> One case study found that a 17-month-old child acquiring German replaced the voiceless velar fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with the nearest available continuant {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, or deleted it altogether ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'book' pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Prosodically, children prefer bisyllabic words with the pattern strong – weak over monosyllabic words.

Vowel space development

In 2009, Lintfert examined the development of vowel space of German speakers in their first three years of life. During the babbling stage, vowel distribution has no clear pattern. However, stressed and unstressed vowels already show different distributions in the vowel space. Once word production begins, stressed vowels expand in the vowel space, while the F1 – F2 vowel space of unstressed vowels becomes more centralized. The majority of infants are then capable of stable production of F1.<ref name="Lintfert 159">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> The variability of formant frequencies among individuals decreases with age.<ref name="Lintfert 138">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> After 24 months, infants expand their vowel space individually at different rates. However, if the parents' utterances possess a well-defined vowel space, their children produce clearly distinguished vowel classes earlier.<ref name="Lintfert 160">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> By about three years old, children command the production of all vowels, and they attempt to produce the four cardinal vowels, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, at the extreme limits of the F1–F2 vowel space (i.e., the height and backness of the vowels are made extreme by the infants).<ref name="Lintfert 138"/>

Nasals

The acquisition of nasals in German differs from that of Dutch, a phonologically closely related language.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> German children produce proportionately more nasals in onset position (sounds before a vowel in a syllable) than Dutch children do.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> German children, once they reached 16 months, also produced significantly more nasals in syllables containing schwas, when compared with Dutch-speaking children.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> This may reflect differences in the languages the children are being exposed to, although the researchers claim that the development of nasals likely cannot be seen apart from the more general phonological system the child is developing.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Phonotactic constraints and reading

A 2006 study examined the acquisition of German in phonologically delayed children (specifically, issues with fronting of velars and stopping of fricatives) and whether they applied phonotactic constraints to word-initial consonant clusters containing these modified consonants.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> In many cases, the subjects (mean age = 5.1) avoided making phonotactic violations, opting instead for other consonants or clusters in their speech. This suggests that phonotactic constraints do apply to the speech of German children with phonological delay, at least in the case of word-initial consonant clusters.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Additional research<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> has also shown that spelling consistencies seen in German raise children's phonemic awareness as they acquire reading skills.

Sound changes

Sound changes and mergers

A common merger is that of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} at the end of a syllable with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, for instance {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('war'), but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('wars'); {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('he lay'), but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('we lay'). This pronunciation is frequent all over central and northern Germany. It is characteristic of regional languages and dialects, particularly Low German in the North, where Template:Angbr represents a fricative, becoming voiceless in the syllable coda, as is common in German (final-obstruent devoicing). However common it is, this pronunciation is considered sub-standard. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (which corresponds to English -y), the fricative pronunciation of final Template:Angbr is prescribed by the Siebs standard, for instance {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('important'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('importance'). The merger occurs neither in Austro-Bavarian and Alemannic German nor in the corresponding varieties of Standard German, and therefore in these regions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Many speakers do not distinguish the affricate {{#invoke:IPA|main}} from the simple fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the beginning of a word,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> in which case the verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('[he] travels') and the noun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('horse') are both pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This most commonly occurs in northern and western Germany, where the local dialects did not originally have the sound {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Some speakers also have peculiar pronunciation for {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the middle or end of a word, replacing the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with a voiceless bilabial fricative, i.e. a consonant produced by pressing air flow through the tensed lips. Thereby {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('drop') becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, rather than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Many speakers who have a vocalization of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after {{#invoke:IPA|main}} merge this combination with long {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (i.e. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Hereby, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('sheep') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('sharp') can both be pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This merger does not occur where {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is a front vowel while {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is realised as a back vowel. Here the words are kept distinct as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('sheep') and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('sharp').

In umlaut forms, the difference usually reoccurs: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Speakers with this merger also often use {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (instead of formally normal {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) where it stems from original {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('arks') is thus pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which makes a minimal pair with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, arguably making the difference between {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} phonemic, rather than just allophonic, for these speakers.

In the standard pronunciation, the vowel qualities {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as well as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, are all still distinguished even in unstressed syllables. In this latter case, however, many simplify the system in various degrees. For some speakers, this may go so far as to merge all four into one, hence misspellings by schoolchildren such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (instead of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (instead of Portugal).

In everyday speech, more mergers occur, some of which are universal and some of which are typical for certain regions or dialect backgrounds. Overall, there is a strong tendency of reduction and contraction. For example, long vowels may be shortened, consonant clusters may be simplified, word-final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be dropped in some cases, and the suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} may be contracted with preceding consonants, e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('to have').

If the clusters {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are followed by another consonant, the stops {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} usually lose their phonemic status. Thus while the standard pronunciation distinguishes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('whole') from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('goose'), as well as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, the two pairs are homophones for most speakers. The commonest practice is to drop the stop (thus {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for both words), but some speakers insert the stop where it is not etymological ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for both words), or they alternate between the two ways. Only a few speakers retain a phonemic distinction.

Middle High German

The Middle High German vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} developed into the modern Standard German diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, whereas {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} developed into {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. For example, Middle High German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('hot' and 'white') became Standard German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. In some dialects, the Middle High German vowels have not changed, e.g. Swiss German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, while in other dialects or languages, the vowels have changed but the distinction is kept, e.g. Bavarian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Ripuarian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (however the Colognian dialect has kept the original [ei] diphthong in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), Yiddish {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

The Middle High German diphthongs {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} became the modern Standard German long vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after the Middle High German long vowels changed to diphthongs. Most Upper German dialects retain the diphthongs. A remnant of their former diphthong character is shown when {{#invoke:IPA|main}} continues to be written {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in German (as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'love').

Loanwords

German incorporates a significant number of loanwords from other languages. Loanwords are often adapted to German phonology but to varying degrees, depending on the speaker and the commonness of the word. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} do not occur in native German words but are common in a number of French and English loan words. Many speakers replace them with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} respectively (especially in Southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland), so that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from English jungle) can be pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Some speakers in Northern and Western Germany merge {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, so that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (phonemically {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) can be pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The realization of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, however, is uncommon.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Loanwords from English

Many English words are used in German, especially in technology and pop culture. Some speakers pronounce them similarly to their native pronunciation, but many speakers change non-native phonemes to similar German phonemes (even if they pronounce them in a rather English manner in an English-language setting):

  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are usually pronounced as in RP or General American; some speakers replace them with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} respectively (th-alveolarization) e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be pronounced the same as in English, i.e. Template:IPAblink, or as the corresponding native German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. German and Austrian speakers tend to be variably rhotic when using English loanwords.Template:Citation needed
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often replaced with German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • word-initial {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is often retained (especially in the South, where word-initial {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is common),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> but many speakers replace it with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

  • word-initial {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are usually retained, but some speakers (especially in South Western Germany and Western Austria) replace them with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is usually retained, but in Northern and Western Germany as well as Luxembourg, it is often replaced with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

  • In Northern Standard German, final-obstruent devoicing is applied to English loan words just as to other words e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. However, in Southern Standard German, in Swiss Standard German and Austrian Standard German, final-obstruent devoicing does not occur and so speakers are more likely to retain the original pronunciation of word-final lenes (although realizing them as fortes may occur because of confusing English spelling with pronunciation).
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are often replaced with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} respectively e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are pronounced the same, as German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (met–mat merger) e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are pronounced the same, as German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (cot–caught merger) e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is usually pronounced as German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is usually pronounced as German {{#invoke:IPA|main}} e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
  • English {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is pronounced as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (happy-tensing) e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Loanwords from French

French loanwords, once very numerous, have in part been replaced by native German coinages or more recently English loanwords. Besides Template:IPAslink, they can also contain the characteristic nasal vowels Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink (always long). However, their status as phonemes is questionable and they are often resolved into sequences either of (short) oral vowel and Template:IPAblink (in the north), or of (long or short) oral vowel and Template:IPAblink or sometimes Template:IPAblink (in the south). For example, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('balloon') may be realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('perfume') as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ('orange') as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Sample

The sample text is a reading of "The North Wind and the Sun". The phonemic transcription treats every instance of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, respectively. The phonetic transcription is a fairly narrow transcription of the educated northern accent. The speaker transcribed in the narrow transcription is 62 years old, and he is reading in a colloquial style.<ref name="Kohler86"/> Aspiration, glottal stops and devoicing of the lenes after fortes are not transcribed.

The audio file contains the whole fable and was recorded by a much younger speaker.

Phonemic transcription

{{#invoke:IPA|main}}

Template:Listen

Phonetic transcription

{{#invoke:IPA|main}}<ref>Source: Template:Harvcoltxt. In the original transcription the vowel length is not indicated, apart from where it is phonemic—that is, for the pairs {{#invoke:IPA|main}}–{{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}–{{#invoke:IPA|main}}.</ref>

Orthographic version

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

See also

Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Template:Language phonologies

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