View source for Tian

{{Short description|Chinese view of Heaven}}
{{other uses}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Confusing|date=March 2024}}
{{Overly detailed|date=March 2024}}}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Tian
| pic = 天-bronze-shang.svg
| piccap = Chinese [[Bronze script]] character for Tian.
| picsize = 200px
| c = 天
| l = heaven, nature
| p = tiān
| w = t'ien<sup>1</sup>
| bpmf = ㄊㄧㄢ
| mc = tʰen
| j = tin1
| y = tīn
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|t|in|1}}
| gan = tien<sup>1</sup>
| oc-zz = /*qʰl'iːn/
| poj = thiⁿ
| wuu = thi (T1)
| mi = {{IPA|cmn|tʰi̯ɛn|}}
| altname = 
| kanji = 天
| kana = てん
| romaji = ten
| qn = thiên
| chuhan = 天
| hangul = 천
| hanja = 天
| rr = cheon
}}
{{Chinese folk religion}}
'''Tian''' ({{lang|zh|天}}) is one of the oldest Chinese terms for [[heaven]] and is a central concept in [[Chinese mythology]], [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]], and cosmology. During the [[Shang dynasty]] (17th–11th century BCE), the highest deity was referred to as ''[[Shangdi]]'' or ''Di'' ({{lang|zh|帝}}, "Lord").<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2010-02-03 |title=Shangdi |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shangdi |access-date=2023-05-01 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref> In the subsequent [[Zhou dynasty]], Tian became synonymous with this figure. Prior to the 20th century, the worship of Tian was considered an orthodox cosmic principle in China.{{Explain|reason=How did it change over the years?|date=April 2023}}

In [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]], Tian (the celestial aspect of the [[cosmos]], often translated as "[[Heaven]]") is described in relation to its complementary aspect, ''[[Dì]]'' ({{lang|zh|[[地]]}}, often translated as "[[Earth]]").<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woodhead|first1=Linda|last2=Partridge|first2=Christopher|last3=Kawanami|first3=Hiroko|title=Religions in the Modern World|date=2016|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-415-85881-6|pages=147–148|edition=Third}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |page=19}}</ref> Together, they were understood to represent the two poles of the [[Trailokya|Three Realms]] of reality, with Humanity ({{lang|zh|人}}, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|rén}}) occupying the middle realm, and the lower world inhabited by demons ({{lang|zh|魔}}, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|mó}}) and spirits or "ghosts" ({{lang|zh|鬼}}, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|guǐ}}).<ref name="Woolf2007">{{cite book|first=Greg|last=Woolf|title=Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=Heaven+earth+humankind+universe+three+realms+saturn|year=2007|publisher=[[Barnes & Noble]]|isbn=978-1-4351-0121-0|page=212}}</ref> 

Tian was variously thought of as a supreme power presiding over lesser gods and human beings,<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":024">{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House UK |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |page=219 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |oclc=910498369 |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref> a force that could bring order, calm, catastrophe, or punishment,<ref name=":05">{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |page=233}}</ref> a deity,<ref name=":10027">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=424 |oclc=46661540}}</ref>{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}} [[destiny]],{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}}<ref name=":05" /> an impersonal force governing events,<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}} a holy world or [[afterlife]], possibly containing multiple realms,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=xian |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/xian-Daoism |access-date=2023-04-29 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |page=280 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref> or some combination of these.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=tian |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tian |access-date=2023-04-28 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Characters==
[[File:天-seal.svg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Seal script]] for Tian {{lang|zh|天}} ("heaven")]]
[[File:天-oracle.svg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Oracle script]] for Tian {{lang|zh|天}} ("heaven")]]
The modern [[Chinese character]] Tian ({{linktext|lang=zh|天}}) and its early [[seal script]] form combine {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|dà}} {{linktext|lang=zh|大}} ("great; large") and {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|yī}} {{linktext|lang=zh|一}} ("one"). However, some of the original characters in Shang [[oracle bone script]] and Zhōu [[bronzeware script]] depict an anthropomorphic figure with an enlarged head representing a "great person."

In oracle and bronze inscriptions, the [[ideogram]] for {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|dà}} {{lang|zh|大}} portrays a [[stick figure]] with arms stretched outward, symbolizing "great" or "large." The corresponding forms of Tian {{lang|zh|天}} emphasize the cranium of this "great person," represented either with a square or round head, or a head marked with one or two lines. Schuessler notes that some bronze graphs for Tian, depicting a person with a round head, resemble those for {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|dīng}} {{linktext|lang=zh|丁}} (the "fourth [[Celestial stem]]"). He suggests that "the anthropomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original meaning was 'deity' rather than 'sky'."<ref name="harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=495">{{harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=495}}</ref>

Two [[variant Chinese character]]s for Tian {{lang|zh|天}} are: 
* {{linktext|lang=zh|二人}} (èr rén, "two humans"), written with {{linktext|lang=zh|二}} {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|èr}} ("two") and {{linktext|lang=zh|人}} {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|rén}} ("human").
* {{linktext|lang=zh|靝}}, a [[Daoist]] coinage{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|p=1068}} combining {{linktext|lang=zh|青}} {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|qīng}} ("blue") and {{linktext|lang=zh|氣}} [[qi]] ("qi; vital energy"), used in the sense of "blue sky".

==Etymology==
Reconstructions of Tian ({{lang|zh|天}}) in [[Middle Chinese]] ({{Circa|6th}}–10th centuries CE) include ''t'ien'',<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvp|Karlgren|1922}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> ''t'iɛn'',<ref>{{harvp|Zhou |1972}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> ''tʰɛn'' > ''tʰian'',<ref>{{harvp|Pulleyblank |1991}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> and ''then''.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter |1992 }}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}, {{harvp|Baxter|Sagart|2014}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> Reconstructions in [[Old Chinese]] ({{Circa|6th}}–3rd centuries BCE) include ''t'ien'',<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ''t'en'',<ref>{{harvp|Zhou|1972}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> ''hlin'',<ref>{{harvp|Baxter|1992}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> ''thîn'',<ref>{{harvp|Schuessler|2007}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> and ''l̥ˤin''.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter| Sagart|2014}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref>

Schuessler links the etymology of Tian with the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] [[Mongolian language|and Mongolian]] word ''[[tengri]]'' ("sky," "heaven," "deity"), as well as with [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] words such as ''taleŋ'' ([[Adi people|Adi]]) and ''tǎ-lyaŋ'' ([[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]), both meaning "sky" or "god".<ref name="harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=495"/> He also suggests a possible connection between Tian and {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|diān}} {{lang|zh|巔}} ("summit, mountaintop") or {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|diān}} {{lang|zh|顛}} ("summit, top of the head, forehead"), which share cognates such as [[Zemeic languages|Zemeic]] [[Naga languages|Naga]] ''tiŋ'' ("sky").<ref>{{harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=211}}; [https://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/6312 #6312 NEIA *t(s)iŋ celestial / sky / weath (provisional)] at Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus</ref> 

Other reconstructions of {{lang|zh|天}}'s Old Chinese pronunciation, such as *''qʰl'iːn''<ref>{{harvp|Zhengzhang|2003}}</ref> or *''l̥ˤi[n]''<ref>{{harvp|Baxter|Sagart|2011|p=110}}</ref> propose a voiceless lateral onset, either as a consonant cluster or a single consonant. Baxter and Sagart argue, based on dialectal differences in [[Eastern Han Chinese]], as a phonetic component in [[Chinese character classification#Phono-semantic compounds|phono-semantic compounds]], and its role in transcribing foreign syllables, that around 200 CE {{lang|zh|天}} had two onsets: [[Coronal consonants|coronal]] *''[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives#Varieties|tʰ]]'' and [[Dorsal consonants|dorsal]] *''[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]].'' Both are thought to have derived from an earlier voiceless lateral *''l̥ˤ''.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=113-114}}</ref> The further etymology remains uncertain. One proposal links transcriptions of the [[Xiongnu]] word for "sky," ''haak-lin'' ({{wikt-lang|zh|赫連}}), as related.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Sanping |title=Sino-Tokharico-Altaica — Two Linguistic Notes |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |date=1998 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=24–43 |jstor=41928134 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928134 |issn=0008-9192}}</ref>

===Compounds===
Tian is a component in many Chinese [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]]. Some notable examples include:
* [[Mandate of Heaven]] (''Tiānmìng'', 天命)
*[[Heavenly Questions]] (''Tiānwèn'', 天問), a section of the ''[[Chu Ci]]''.
*{{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|Tiānzǐ}} ({{lang|zh|天子}} "[[Emperor of China|Son of Heaven]]") – an honorific title for the emperor
*[[All under heaven]] (''Tiānxià'', 天下)
*{{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|Tiāndì}} ({{lang|zh|天地}}, {{lit|heaven and earth}}) – meaning "the world; the universe"
*[[Xingtian]] (刑天)
*{{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|Tiānfáng}} ({{lang|zh|天房}}, {{lit.|House of Heaven}}, a Chinese name for the [[Kaaba]], derived from ''Bayt Allah'' ({{langx|ar|بَيْت ٱللَّٰه|lit=House of God}}).

==Chinese interpretations==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2012}}
In Confucianism and Taoism, the terms "Lord Heaven" and "[[Jade Emperor]]" were sometimes used for a supreme deity regarded as an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropromorphized]] form of Tian,<ref name=":10026">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=326, 393, 401 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and in some interpretations these names were considered synonymous.

Tian was described as "the dwelling place of [[Chinese gods and immortals|gods]] and other superhuman beings".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Zaleski |first=Carol |author-link=Carol Zaleski |date=2023-05-12 |title=Heaven |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/heaven |access-date=2023-05-15 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}} It was also regarded as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature... and is synonymous with the divine will."{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}}

In Chinese culture, heaven has often been associated with "order," serving as "the blueprint for creation," "the [[Mandate of Heaven|mandate by which earthly rulers govern]]," and "the standard by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth."<ref name=":2" />

During the Zhou dynasty, nobles made the worship of heaven a central part of their [[political philosophy]]. They viewed it as comprising "many gods" who embodied order, kingship, and the [[Mandate of Heaven]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Patricia O'Connell |title=World History: Our Human Story |last2=Holdren |first2=John |date=May 2021 |publisher=Sheridan Kentucky |isbn=978-1-60153-123-0 |location=Versailles, Kentucky |page=98}}</ref>

=== Confucianism ===
{{Confucianism}}
Confucianism contains a religious dimension characterized by reverence for Heaven (Tian) and Earth ([[Di (Chinese concept)|''Dì'']]), which were regarded as powers regulating the natural world and influencing human affairs.<ref name=":9" /> The concepts of [[Yin and yang|''yīn'' and ''yáng'']] were considered integral to this relationship, extending to humanity and human institutions.<ref name=":9" /> In this worldview, the "cosmos" and its "principles" served as the standard to which human conduct should conform.<ref name=":9" />{{long quote|date=March 2024}}

Historically and in the present, many Confucian scholars have used the ''I Ching'' to [[Divination|divine]] events through the transformations of Tian and other natural forces.<ref name=":9" /> Respect for Heaven and the natural world has also led some Confucian thinkers to adopt perspectives interpreted as environmentalist, emphasizing harmony between humanity and nature as a foundation of moral cultivation.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Tucker |first=Mary Evelyn |author-link=Mary Evelyn Tucker |date=1998 |title=Confucianism and Ecology: Potential and Limits |url=https://fore.yale.edu/Publications/Books/Religions-World-and-Ecology-Book-Series/Confucianism-Table-Contents/Confucianism |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=The Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale |publisher=[[Yale University]]}}</ref> Within this framework, harmony was regarded as "the basis for a sincere mind."<ref name=":9" /> The emperor, as ''Tiānzǐ'' ("Son of Heaven"), was traditionally central to Confucian political philosophy.<ref name=":05" />

[[Mount Tai]] has been regarded as a sacred site in Confucianism and was traditionally the most important location where [[Chinese emperors|emperors]] offered sacrifices to Heaven and Earth.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spectacular China |publisher=Könemann |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-8290-1077-1 |editor-last=Guangwei |editor-first=He |location=Cologne |page=42 |translator-last=Wusun |translator-first=Lin |editor-last2=Hualing |editor-first2=Tong |editor-last3=Wenzhen |editor-first3=Yang |editor-last4=Zhenguo |editor-first4=Chang |editor-last5=Zeru |editor-first5=Li |editor-last6=Ruicheng |editor-first6=Dong |editor-last7=Weijan |editor-first7=Gong |translator-last2=Zhongping |translator-first2=Wu}}</ref>

==== Confucius ====
The concept of Tian was central in the teachings of Confucius. He expressed trust in Heaven and believed that it overruled human effort. He saw himself as fulfilling the will of Heaven, which, in his view, would not allow him to die before completing his mission.<ref>Analects 7.23</ref> References to Heaven appear throughout the ''[[Analects]]'', where Confucius described its attributes and authority.

Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodness:
<blockquote>The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=p.214, VIII, xix}}</ref></blockquote>

He also acknowledged personal dependence upon Heaven: 
<blockquote>The Master said, "Wherein I have done improperly, may Heaven reject me! May Heaven reject me!"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=p.193, VI, xxviii}}</ref></blockquote>

Confucius taught that Heaven could not be deceived:
<blockquote> The Master, being very ill, Zi Lu wished the disciples to act as ministers to him. During a remission of his illness, he said, "Long has the conduct of You been deceitful! By pretending to have ministers when I have them not, whom should I impose upon? Should I impose upon Heaven? Moreover, rather than that I should die in the hands of ministers, is it not better that I should die in the hands of you, my disciples? And though I may not get a great burial, shall I die upon the road?"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=pp. 220-221, IX, xi}}</ref> </blockquote>

He believed that Heaven assigned tasks to people in order to teach them virtue and morality:
<blockquote>The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right."<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=p.146, book II, chapter iv }}</ref> </blockquote>

Confucius expressed confidence that Heaven knew and approved of his work, even if human rulers did not recognize him:
<blockquote>The Master said, "Alas! there is no one that knows me." Zi Gong said, "What do you mean by thus saying—that no one knows you?" The Master replied, "I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven—that knows me!"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=288-9, XIV, xxxv}}</ref></blockquote>

He also expressed complete trust in the providence of Heaven, even in times of danger:
<blockquote>The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said, "After the death of King Wen, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have obtained such a relation to that cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to me?"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=217-8, 9.5 and 7.12}}</ref> </blockquote>

===Mozi===
For [[Mozi]], Heaven was regarded as the divine ruler, in the same way that the [[Son of Heaven]] functioned as the earthly ruler. Mozi accepted the existence of spirits and minor demons—or at least argued that rituals should be performed as if they existed for social reasons—but considered their role to be carrying out the will of Heaven by observing human conduct and punishing wrongdoers. He taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that individuals should therefore extend love impartially to all human beings, without distinguishing between relatives and strangers.<ref>{{harvp|Dubs|1960|pp=163-172}}</ref> 

Mozi also criticized the Confucians of his time for failing to follow what he considered the authentic teachings of Confucius. In his ''Will of Heaven'' (Tiānzhì, {{lang|zh|天志}}), he wrote:
<blockquote>"Moreover, I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons—Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer—to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."<ref>{{harvp|Mozi|Mei|1929|loc=p. [https://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-ii 145]}}</ref></blockquote>

===Schools of cosmology===
{{further|Chinese astronomy#Cosmology}}

Three major schools addressed the structure of Tian,{{Explain|reason=What is the relation between old Chinese scientific cosmology and thoughts on tian?|date=April 2023}} from which most later hypotheses were derived.
*''Gàitiān shuō'' ({{lang|zh|蓋天說}}, "canopy-heavens hypothesis"): Originating in the ''[[Zhoubi Suanjing]]'', it proposed that the earth was covered by a material heaven resembling a canopy.
*''Hùntiān shuō'' ({{lang|zh|渾天說}}, "egg-like hypothesis"): Suggested that the earth was surrounded by a spherical heaven rotating around it, with celestial bodies attached to the heavenly sphere. (See also: {{section link|Zhang Heng|Astronomy and mathematics}}, [[Chinese creation myth]].)
*''Xuānyè shuō'' ({{lang|zh|宣夜說}}, "firmament hypothesis"): Described heaven as infinite space, with celestial bodies regarded as light substances floating within it and moved by ''[[qi]]''. A summary by Ji Meng ({{lang|zh|郗萌}})appears in the astronomical chapters of the ''[[Book of Jin]]''.

These schools shaped popular conceptions of the [[universe]] and the earth until the [[17th century]], when they were gradually replaced by cosmological theories introduced from [[Europe]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Liu |first=Shu-Chiu |date=2006-12-11 |title=Three early Chinese models |url=https://www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/v7_issue2/liusc/lisc5.htm |website=Asia-Pacific Forum on Science, Learning, and Teaching |series=Historical models and science instruction: A cross-cultural analysis based on students' views |publisher=[[Education University of Hong Kong]]}}</ref>

In some traditions, the sky was also divided into the ''Jiǔtiān'' ({{lang|zh|九天}}, "nine divisions of heaven"): the central sky and the eight directions.

===Buddhism===
In [[Buddhist cosmology]], Tian (天) refers to the [[Trāyastriṃśa|heavenly realms]] and [[pure land]]s.

Certain classes of [[deva (Buddhism)|''devas'']] are also referred to as Tian.

===Taoism===
In Taoism, the number of vertical heavenly layers varies across traditions. A common belief holds that there are 36 Tian (heavens), "arranged on six levels," each presided over by different deities.<ref name=":05" /> The highest heaven is the "Great Web," which was sometimes described as the dwelling place of [[Yuanshi Tianzun]].<ref name=":05" />

After death, Taoists were sometimes believed to explore the "heavenly realms" or to become [[Xian (Taoism)|immortals]] (''xiān'').<ref name=":1" />{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|p=473}} These immortals could be benevolent or malevolent,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Helle |first=Horst J. |author-link=Horst Helle |date=2017 |chapter=Daoism: China's Native Religion |title=China: Promise or Threat?: A Comparison of Cultures |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |pages=75–76|jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w8h29s.12 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> and rivalries between them were occasionally described.

Some Taoist traditions, such as [[Shangqing School|Shangqing Daoism]] regarded certain heavens as malevolent,{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=691}} although Tian was more commonly conceived as a positive or benevolent force.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Dell |first=Christopher |title=Mythology: The Complete Guide to our Imagined Worlds |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-500-51615-7 |location=New York |page=38}}</ref>

In some interpretations, heaven is viewed as synonymous with the Dao, or as a natural energy accessible through living in harmony with the Dao.<ref name=":2" />

Taoist writings also describe a transcendent realm, sometimes referred to as "the Heavens," which was considered inconceivable to ordinary humans and even to Confucian scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |pages=467–468}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Minford |first=John |title=Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-670-02498-8 |location=New York |pages=ix-x |language=en-US |author-link=John Minford}}</ref> Higher spiritual manifestations of Daoist figures such as Laozi were believed to exist there during their lifetimes, absorbing the "purest [[Yin and yang|''yīn'' and ''yáng'']]."<ref name=":13" /> Immortals were also thought to be reborn into this realm after death. These spiritual forms were imagined as abstract beings capable of manifesting as mythical creatures, such as [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] who consumed ''yīn'' and ''yáng'' energy and traveled on [[cloud]]s with their ''[[qi]]''.<ref name=":13" />

=== Chinese folk religion ===
In Chinese folk religion, some conceptions of Tian (heaven) described it as consisting of multiple, sphere-like realms arranged in a hierarchy.<ref name=":4" /> These realms were believed to contain various spirits and creatures, including morally ambiguous beings such as [[fox spirit]]s<ref name=":3" /> and fire-breathing [[Chinese dragon|dragons]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hua |first=Sara Lynn |date=2016-06-28 |title=Difference Between A Chinese Dragon and A Western Dragon |url=https://blog.tutorabcchinese.com/expats/chinese-dragon-western-difference-lucky |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=TutorABC Chinese China Expats & Culture Blog |language=en}}</ref>

Many practitioners of ancient folk religion also believed in the existence of a Tao realm.<ref name=":13" />

===Ahom religion===
The [[Ahom religion]], which ethnically originated from the [[Dai people]] of [[Yunnan]] in [[Southwest China]], includes the concept of ''Mong Phi'' ("Heavenly Kingdom"), which is often identified with Tian (heaven).<ref>"Heaven is here Tien a part Yunnan In Southwest China." {{cite book | last = Gogoi|page = 14| first = Padmeshwar| title = Tai Ahom Religion and Customs| publisher = Publication Board, Gauhati, Assam | year = 1976| url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99476 }}</ref>

===Yiguandao===
In [[Yiguandao]], Tian (heaven) is divided into three vertical worlds: 
* ''Lǐ Tiān'' ({{lang|zh|理天}}, "heaven of truth")
* ''Qì Tiān'' ({{lang|zh|氣天}}, "heaven of spirit")
* ''Xiàng Tiān'' ({{lang|zh|象天}}, "heaven of matter")

== Japanese interpretations ==
In [[Shinto]], heaven was sometimes conceived as a hierarchy of multiple, sphere-like realms inhabited by ''[[kami]]''.<ref name=":3" /> Myths concerning the ''kami'' describe their activities both on Earth and in heaven.<ref name=":102">{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Jay |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy |publisher=[[Alpha Books]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-02-863820-1 |location=Indianapolis |page=170 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Takamagahara|Heaven]] was generally regarded as a pure and orderly domain for nature [[Deity|deities]] in Shinto.<ref name=":102" />

==Interpretation by Western sinologists==
Sinologist [[Herrlee Creel]], in his study ''The Origin of the Deity T'ien'', provides an overview of the historical development of Tian ({{lang|zh|天}}) in ancient China.

Creel notes that for centuries it was believed that all Chinese historically revered Tian as the highest deity, synonymous with ''[[Shangdi|Di]]'', ({{lang|zh|帝}}) or ''Shangdi'' ({{lang|zh|上帝}}). However, evidence from Shang dynasty inscriptions indicates that Tian is not mentioned in these sources; instead, they frequently refer to ''Di'' or ''Shangdi''. The term Tian appears primarily in Zhou texts, suggesting that it was originally a Zhou deity. After the Zhou conquest, Tian came to be identified with the Shang deity Di, in a manner analogous to how the Romans identified [[Zeus]] with [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]].<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1970|p=493}}</ref>

Creel highlights a historical shift in terminology for "god" from the Shang to the Zhou period. Shang oracle inscriptions often used ''Di'' and ''Shangdi'', while Zhou bronzes and texts increasingly employed Tian. For example, the chapter ''Tang Shi'' ({{lang|zh|湯誓}}, "Tang's speech") demonstrates early Zhou usage of Tian alongside Shangdi. According to tradition, [[Tang of Shang]] addressed his subjects to overthrow King [[Jie of Xia|Jie]] of the Xia dynasty:

{{blockquote |"Come, ye multitudes of the people, listen all to my words. It is not I, the little child, who dare to undertake what may seem to be a rebellious enterprise; but for the many crimes of the sovereign of Hsiâ [Xia] Heaven has given the charge [...] to destroy him. Now, ye multitudes, you are saying, 'Our prince does not compassionate us… Assist, I pray you, me, the one man, to carry out the punishment appointed by Heaven [Tiān]. I will greatly reward you.'"}}

Based on the evidence, Creel proposes that Tian developed from earlier concepts of kingship. In both Shang and Zhou pictographs ''dà'' ({{lang|zh|大}}, "great man") represented a large or important person. The Zhou added a head to this figure to denote Tian ({{lang|zh|天}}) originally meaning "king" or "kings" (cf. ''wáng,'' {{linktext|lang=zh|王}}). Over time, the meaning of Tian expanded to refer to ancestral kings controlling fate and providence, and ultimately to a single omnipotent deity. Tian also came to designate both "heaven" as a realm for ancestral kings and gods, and the visible "sky".<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1970|pp=501–6}}</ref>

Another possibility is that Tian may be related to [[Tengri]], suggesting a potential origin as a loanword from a prehistoric Central Asian language.<ref>{{harvp|Müller|1870}}{{pages needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

Western scholar [[Kelly James Clark]] has argued that Confucius may have viewed Tian as an anthropomorphic deity, which Clark terms the "Heavenly Supreme Emperor," though most other Confucian scholars disagree with this interpretation.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |title=Classical Theism: New Essays on the Metaphysics of God |date=2023-02-10 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor=Jonathan Fuqua |editor2=Robert C. Koons |isbn=978-1-000-83688-2 |chapter=Searching for the Ineffable: Classical Theism and Eastern Thought about God<!-- pageno unknown -- info is from the e-book--> |oclc=1353836889}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amenominakanushi]] – the Japanese concept of God as the ultimate creator
* [[Haneullim]] – the Sky God of [[Cheondoism]] 
* [[Hongjun Laozu]]
* [[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]] 
* [[Taiyi Tianzun]]
* [[Tengri]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Baxter |first=William H. |title=A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1992 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Baxter |first1=William |first2=Lauren |last2=Sagart |year=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927141238/http://crlao.ehess.fr/docannexe.php?id=1207 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url=http://crlao.ehess.fr/docannexe.php?id=1207 |title=Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction |type=pdf}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baxter |first1=William |first2=Lauren |last2=Sagart |year=2014 |title=Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=113–114 |url=https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf}} Supplemental materials available at [http://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/ their webpage].
* {{cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |location=United States |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chang |first=Ruth H. |year=2000 |title=Understanding ''Di'' and ''Tian'': Deity and Heaven From Shang to Tang |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=108 |pages=1–54}}
* {{cite book |last=Creel |first=Herrlee G. |year=1970 |title=The Origins of Statecraft in China |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-12043-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dubs |first=Homer H. |year=1960 |title=Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=9 |issue=3–4 |pages=163–172|doi=10.2307/1397096 |jstor=1397096 }}
* {{cite book |last=Feng |first=Yu-Lan |year=1952 |title=A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. I. The Period of the Philosophers |translator-first=Derk |translator-last=Bodde |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
*{{cite journal |last=Karlgren |first=Bernhard |title=The reconstruction of Ancient Chinese |journal=T'oung Pao |year=1922 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–42 |url=https://archive.org/stream/s2tungpaotoungp21corduoft#page/iv/mode/2up |doi=10.1163/156853222X00015}}
* {{cite book |translator-last=Legge |translator-first=James |year=1865 |title=The Chinese Classics, Vol. III, The Shoo King |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics31legg/ |via=Internet Archive |ref={{harvid|Legge|1865}}}}
* {{cite book |author=Confucius |author-link=Confucius |translator-last=Legge |translator-first=James |year=1893 |title=The Chinese Classics, Vol. I, The Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics01legg/ |via=Internet Archive |ref={{harvid|Confucius|Legge|1893}}}}
* {{cite book |author=Mozi |author-link=Mozi |translator-first=Y. P. |translator-last=Mei |year=1929 |title=The Ethical and Political Works of Motse |location=London |publisher=Probsthain |ref={{harvid|Mozi|Mei|1929}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Friedrich Max |year=1870 |url=https://archive.org/details/lecturesonscienc00mlle |title=Lectures on the Science of Religion|publisher=New York, C. Scribner and company }}
*{{cite book |first=Edwin G. |last=Pulleyblank |title=A Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin |location=Vancouver, BC |publisher=UBC Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7748-0366-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Schuessler |first=Axel |year=2007 |title=ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Zhengzhang Shangfang |last=Zhengzhang |first=Shangfang 鄭張尚芳 |script-title=zh:上古音系 |trans-title=Ancient Phonology |date=2003 |publisher=Shanghai Education Press}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Fagao 周法高 |year=1972 |title=Shanggu Hanyu he Han-Zangyu |script-title=zh:上古漢語和漢藏語 |trans-title=Ancient Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Languages |journal=Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong |volume=5 |pages=159–244 |language=zh}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|天}}
*[http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=%E5%A4%A9+&submitButton1=Etymology Oracle, Bronze, and Seal characters for 天], Richard Sears

{{Chinese mythology}}
{{Chinese philosophy}}
{{Theology}}
{{Names of God}}
{{Religious Confucianism}}

[[Category:Chinese gods]]
[[Category:Places in Chinese mythology]]
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
[[Category:Religious Confucianism]]
[[Category:East Asian traditional religion]]
[[Category:Heaven]]
[[Category:Names of God]]
[[Category:Sky and weather gods]]
[[Category:Taoist cosmology]]
[[Category:Relationship between Heaven and Mankind]]
[[Category:Deities in Chinese folk religion]]
[[Category:Kyōiku kanji]]
[[Category:Concepts in Chinese philosophy]]