General Motors EV1

The General Motors EV1 is a subcompact car that was produced from 1996 to 1999 by the American automaker General Motors (GM). A two-door, two-seat coupe, it was the first mass-produced and purpose-built battery electric vehicle in history.

In 1990, GM debuted the battery electric Impact prototype, from which the design of the production EV1 was largely inspired. The California Air Resources Board enacted a mandate that year, stating that the seven leading automakers marketing vehicles in the US must produce and sell zero-emissions vehicles to maintain access to the California market. GM began manufacturing the car in 1996. In its initial stages of production, most of them were leased to consumers in California, Arizona, and Georgia. Within a year of the EV1's release, leasing programs were also launched in various other American states.

Produced in two short generations, the EV1 featured a lightweight aluminum frame and a three-phase AC induction motor capable of producing Template:Convert. At the 1998 Detroit Auto Show, GM unveiled several EV1 prototypes, including a series hybrid, a parallel hybrid, a compressed natural gas variant, and four-door model. Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market, ultimately reclaiming and crushing most of the cars. In 2003, GM terminated the EV1 program, disregarding protests from customers.

Since its demise, the EV1's cancellation has remained a subject of dispute. Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self-sabotaging its electric car program to avoid potential losses in spare parts sales, while also blaming the oil industry for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road. Its discontinuation inspired the documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car? (2006), and GM gained a reputation as the company "that killed the electric car".

History

During the 1970s and 1980s, progress in electric vehicle development had largely stalled, with over 80Template:Nbsppercent of vehicles produced in the US powered by V8 engines.<ref name=USDoeHotEC/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The enactment of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment and the 1992 Energy Policy Act, alongside the introduction of new transportation emissions regulations by the California Air Resources Board (CARB), led to a renewed interest in electric vehicles in the US.<ref name=USDoeHotEC>Template:Cite web</ref>

As opposed to many electric vehicles of its time, the EV1 was a mass-produced and purpose-built battery electric vehicle rather than a conversion of another car.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Kenneth Baker, a General Motors (GM) engineer, was the lead engineer for the EV1 program, having previously served as such for the unsuccessful Chevrolet Electrovette program in the 1970s.<ref name=dicerolls>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfnm

Development

At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, GM chairman Roger Smith demonstrated the Impact, a battery electric concept car.Template:Sfnm The company initially planned to produce 20,000 units but later raised the goal to 100,000 vehicles per year.<ref name="nyt1990-01-04">Template:Cite news</ref> Developed by the electric vehicle company AeroVironment, the Impact featured design knowledge gained from GM's success in the 1987 World Solar Challenge—a trans-Australian race for solar-powered cars, which the automaker's Sunraycer won.Template:Sfnm Alan Cocconi from AC Propulsion designed and built the original drive system electronics for the Impact, which was further developed by Hughes Electronics.Template:Sfnm The Impact was powered by 32 lead–acid rechargeable batteries and had a top speed of Template:Cvt.Template:Sfnm On April 18, 1990, Smith announced that the Impact would become a production vehicle, with a goal of 25,000 annual units.<ref name="e559">Template:Cite web</ref>

The CARB launched a major environmental initiative in 1990. The board required the seven largest automakers in the US—with GM as the largest—to ensure that twoTemplate:Nbsppercent of their fleets were emission-free by 1998, rising to fiveTemplate:Nbsppercent by 2001 and tenTemplate:Nbsppercent by 2003, depending on consumer demand.<ref name=dicerolls>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=Horton>Template:Cite news</ref> CARB said that the mandate was intended to combat California's severe air pollution, which at the time exceeded the combined pollution levels of the other forty-nine states. In response, other members of the former American Automobile Manufacturers Association, including Toyota, Nissan, and Honda, also developed prototype zero-emissions vehicles.Template:Sfnm

In 1994, GM launched PrEView, a program in which fifty hand-built Impact electric cars were loaned to drivers for one- to two-week periods, with the requirement that participants document their experiences and provide feedback.Template:Sfnm Driver feedback on the Impact was positive, as were assessments from the automotive press. Motor Trend said that the Impact "is precisely one of those occasions where GM proves beyond any doubt that it knows how to build fantastic automobiles" and called it "the world's only electric vehicle that drives like a real car". Automobile magazine commended its ride and handling as "amazing" and praised its "smooth delivery of power".Template:Sfnm That same year, a modified Impact set a production electric vehicle land speed record of Template:Cvt.Template:Sfn Despite the good reception, as highlighted in a front-page feature in The New York Times, GM appeared to be unenthusiastic about the prospect of having created a successful electric car:Template:Sfn

According to the report, GM considered the PrEView program a failure, concluding that electric cars were not yet commercially viable and that CARB regulations should be rescinded. Dennis Minano, GM's vice president for Energy and Environment, questioned whether consumers actually wanted electric vehicles. Robert James Eaton, chairman of Chrysler, expressed doubt about the readiness of mass-produced electric cars, stating in 1994: "If the law is there, we’ll meet itTemplate:Nbsp[...] at this point of time, nobody can forecast that we can make an electric car". Their skepticism drew criticism from Thomas C. Jorling, Commissioner of Environmental Conservation for New York State, which had adopted California's emissions program. Jorling argued that consumers had shown substantial interest in electric vehicles and suggested that automakers were reluctant to move away from internal combustion technology because of their massive existing investments.<ref name="nyt19940128">Template:Cite news</ref>

History of production

Following the PrEView program, work on the GM electric car program persisted. The original fifty Impact cars were destroyed after testing was completed, and the design had evolved into the EV1 by 1996.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The first generation of the EV1 was powered by lead–acid batteries;Template:Sfnm 660 units were produced,Template:Sfnm all of which were provided under a leasing agreement that explicitly prohibited purchase.<ref name="LAtimes">Template:Cite news</ref> Saturn was responsible for leasing and maintenance of the EV1.<ref name="Truett">Template:Cite news</ref> Analysts projected a potential market ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 cars annually.<ref name="Fisher01051996">Template:Cite news</ref> An industry insider estimated that each EV1 cost GM roughly $80,000 to produce when factoring in research, development, and related expenses, while other reports placed the figure closer to $100,000.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn GM invested just under $500 million in the EV1 and associated electric vehicle technologies, and more than $1 billion overall.<ref name="i426">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfnm

GM pre-screened lessees, limiting initial eligibility to residents of Southern California and Arizona, with the program beginning on December 5, 1996.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Leasing rates for the EV1s ranged from $399 to $549 a month.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The car's launch was accompanied by an extensive $8 million promotional campaign that included prime-time television commercials, billboards, a dedicated website, and a tie-in appearance at the premiere of the Sylvester Stallone film Daylight (1996). Early lessees included several high-profile figures, among them celebrities, executives, and politicians. At the debut event, forty leases were signed, with GM projecting 100 by the end of the year.<ref name="LAtimes"/> In its first year, GM leased 288 vehicles.Template:Sfn In 1999, Ken Stewart, the brand manager for the EV1 program, characterized the feedback from the car's drivers as "wonderfully-maniacal loyalty".<ref name="e559"/>

Badging of an EV1

Joe Kennedy, Saturn's vice president of marketing at GM, acknowledged public concerns about the EV1's high cost, reliance on lead–acid battery technology, and limited driving range, remarking, "Let us not forget that technology starts small and grows slowly before technology improves and costs go down."<ref name="LAtimes"/> Some anti-tax groups criticized the incentives provided to EV1 lessees, claiming they amounted to government-subsidized driving for the wealthy.<ref name="LAtimes"/> Marvin Rush, a cinematographer for the television series Star Trek: Voyager (1995–2001), observed that GM was failing to properly market the EV1. He spent $20,000 of his own money to produce and air four unofficial radio advertisements promoting the vehicle. Although GM initially disapproved of the advertisements, the company later reimbursed Rush and officially endorsed the commercials. By 1997, GM had committed $10 million to EV1 advertising, with plans to increase the budget by another $5 million the following year.<ref name="LAtimesradio">Template:Cite news</ref>

In 1998, GM introduced the second-generation EV1. The update yielded reduced production costs, quieter operation, and significant reductions in weight.Template:Sfnm<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The second-generation models were initially released with a Panasonic lead–acid battery pack; soon after, an Ovonics nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) was added as an option.Template:Sfnm The second generation EV1 leasing program expanded to several other American cities, with monthly payments ranging from $349 to $574.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> GM produced and leased 457 second-generation EV1s.Template:Sfn On March 2, 2000, GM issued a recall for 450 first-generation EV1s. The automaker had determined that a faulty charge port cable could eventually build up enough heat to catch on fire.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Sixteen "thermal incidents" were reported, including at least one fire that resulted in the destruction of a charging vehicle.Template:Sfn The recall did not affect second generation EV1s.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Design

Construction and technology

Rear view

To maximize the car's efficiency, extensive wind-tunnel testing was conducted on the EV1, and GM additionally implemented partial fender skirts on the rear wheelhouses. The rear wheels are Template:Convert closer together than the front wheels, thereby creating a "teardrop" shape. These resulted in a very low Template:Cd and a Template:CdA.<ref>Template:Multiref</ref> The EV1 was supported by super-lightweight magnesium alloy wheels and low-rolling resistance tires developed by Michelin.Template:Sfn The tires were mounted on light fourteen-inch wheels and inflated to 50 pounds per square inch (psi). The rubber compound and hardness of these tires helped to minimize rolling resistance.Template:Sfn<ref name=PowerMove>Template:Cite news</ref>

Almost all of the EV1's components were engineered to maximize energy efficiency.Template:Sfn Its spaceframe, constructed of rolled, stamped, and cast aluminum, was the lightest of its kind, weighing just Template:Convert—40Template:Nbsppercent less than a typical steel frame.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>Template:Sfn The frame was covered with three types of plastic, with reinforced fiberglass used for the roof, doors, and hood. For components requiring greater flexibility, such as the bumpers and interior fascias, reaction injection-molded polyurethane was used.Template:Sfn The EV1 employed a regenerative braking system that converted the drive motor into a generator when the brakes were applied. This process slowed the vehicle while recovering kinetic energy and feeding it back into the battery.Template:Sfn<ref name="n354">Template:Cite web</ref> At Template:Convert long, the EV1 is a two-door, two-seat subcompact car with a coupe body style.Template:Sfnm The power-assisted anti-lock braking system was electrically operated. The front disc brakes used an electro-hydraulic mechanism, while the rear drum brakes were fully electric, an industry first.<ref name=PowerMove/>

Conventional vehicles use waste heat from the engine to warm the cabin, but because electric vehicles produce very little excess heat, GM had to develop an alternative system. The company equipped the EV1 with a heat pump to manage cabin temperature, using only about one-third of the energy required by a conventional heating and cooling system. However, the heat pump was effective only when ambient temperatures were above Template:Convert.<ref name=PowerMove/>

Drivetrain and battery

An EV1 charging at the Walnut Creek BART Station in California in August 2002

The electric motor in the EV1 operated on a three-phase AC induction system, generating Template:Convert at 7,000 revolutions per minute (rpm).Template:Sfnm The EV1 could maintain its full torque capacity across its entire power range, delivering Template:Convert of torque from 0 to 7,000 rpm.Template:Sfnm Power was transmitted to the front wheels through an integrated single-speed reduction transmission.Template:Sfnm

The first-generation EV1 used lead–acid batteries that weighed Template:Convert.Template:Sfnm Supplied by GM's Delco Remy division, these packs were rated at 53 amp-hours at 312 volts (16.5 kWh), giving the car a range of Template:Convert.Template:Sfnm<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> When the second generation of the EV1 was introduced in 1999, the car adopted a new set of lead–acid batteries from the Japanese electronics company Panasonic, increasing the battery weight to Template:Convert.Template:Sfnm The batteries were rated at 60 amp-hours at 312 volts (18.7 kWh), and the car had a range of Template:Cvt.Template:Sfnm Soon after, production began on the Ovonics-manufactured NiMH battery pack.Template:Sfn This pack was significantly lighter than the lead–acid battery, weighing Template:Convert. The NiMH batteries were rated at 77 amp-hours at 343 volts (26.4 kWh) and allowed the car to travel from Template:Cvt between charges.Template:Sfn

To charge the EV1, GM equipped the car with the Magne Charge inductive charging paddle, developed and manufactured by Delco Electronics, a GM subsidiary.Template:Sfnm This paddle was inserted into a slot located between the EV1's headlights.Template:Sfn The wireless inductive charging system required no direct electrical contact, though there were isolated reports of fires originating at the charge port.Template:Sfnm Rapid recharging depended on the dedicated home charger supplied by GM.Template:Sfn GM also provided a 120-volt AC convenience charger for the lead–acid models, which was stored in the trunk.Template:Sfn With a Magne Charge unit, charging a lead-acid EV1 took from three to fifteen hours; NiMH models typically needed six to eight hours to reach a full charge.<ref name="e666">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn

1998 conversions

GM unveiled a series of alternative-fuel prototype models at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Among them, the compressed natural gas version was the only non-electric model, created by modifying the standard two-seat EV1 platform. It used a 1.0-liter turbocharged engine and was advertised at Template:Convert.Template:Sfn The series hybrid prototype incorporated an auxiliary power unit (APU) with a gas turbine engine mounted in the trunk. Built by Williams International, the system combined a lightweight gas turbine with a high-speed permanent-magnet AC generator, primarily used to charge the batteries.Template:Sfnm The parallel hybrid prototype paired a 1.3-liter Isuzu turbocharged, direct-injection diesel engine to drive the rear wheels with an Ovonics electric motor powering the front wheels.Template:Sfnm GM also presented a fuel cell model, whose system converted hydrogen to electricity.Template:Sfn The company also debuted a four-passenger EV1 concept, which extended the original vehicle by Template:Convert and replaced the rear beam axle with an independent rear suspension.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Demise

EV1s awaiting their crushing at GM's training center in Burbank, California, in 2005

Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The company ended production of the EV1 in 1999, after 1,117 examples were produced over its three-year manufacture.Template:Sfnm In February 2002, GM notified lessees that they would be recalling the cars, contradicting an earlier statement in which Stewart said that the company had no intention of taking vehicles back from customers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="GM2001">Template:Cite news</ref> The EV1 program was completely terminated in late 2003 under GM CEO Rick Wagoner.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Fifty-eight EV1 drivers submitted letters and deposit checks to GM, proposing lease extensions that would impose no financial burden on the company. They offered to assume responsibility for all maintenance and repairs and allowed GM the right to end the lease if major expenses arose. In June 2002, GM rejected the proposal and returned the checks, which totaled more than $22,000.<ref name="Mieszkowski">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2003, actor Peter Horton reported in the Los Angeles Times that he had attempted to lease an EV1 but was told he could "join their waiting list [of a few thousand]" with an unspecified number of others, and that his chances of receiving a vehicle were minimal.<ref name="Horton"/> In March 2005, GM spokesman Dave Barthmuss told The Washington Post that "there [was] an extremely passionate, enthusiastic and loyal following for this particular vehicleTemplate:Nbsp [...] There simply [were not] enough of them at any given time to make a viable business proposition for GM to pursue long term".<ref name="Fightthecrusher">Template:Cite news</ref>

A range of crushed EV1 cars

Crushed EV1s

In November 2003, GM began recalling the vehicles.<ref name="f548">Template:Cite web</ref> By the end of August 2004, all leased EV1s had been retrieved; around forty were donated to museums and educational institutions, but with their powertrains disabled to prevent operation.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn GM retains several working examples in its Heritage Collection, and Holden—GM's Australian subsidiary—preserved one used for evaluation. That vehicle was rediscovered in 2021 and donated to the National Motor Museum in Birdwood.<ref name="Hemmings" /> GM also provided a fully operational EV1 to the Smithsonian Institution after it declined a deactivated unit, though the car is no longer functional due to battery degradation.<ref name="Hemmings">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Most of the remaining vehicles were sent to crushing facilities for disposal.Template:Sfnm

Filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola claimed on a 2016 episode of Jay Leno's Garage that he had hidden his EV1 from GM, though a company representative disputed this, stating that his leased car had been returned.<ref name="Hemmings"/> The vehicle in Coppola's possession was the only EV1 known to be privately held at the time.<ref name="Hemmings"/> In 2025, an EV1 was sold at a tow yard auction in Atlanta, Georgia, the only documented sale of an EV1. The original lessee of the EV1 later came forward, stating that he had filed a lawsuit against GM when they attempted to repossess the vehicle, which he believes contributed to the car not being destroyed. The vehicle was discovered at Clark Atlanta University after campus police reported it as an abandoned vehicle and impounded it.<ref name="n072">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="x511">Template:Cite web</ref>

Reaction and image

An SUV (RAV4 EV) with a poster that reads "GM Don't Crush the EV1s! Zero Emissions NOW!

Posters on a Toyota RAV4 EV protesting against the crushing of the EV1

Since its demise and destruction, GM's decision to cancel the EV1 has been a subject of debate and controversy.Template:Sfnm Smithsonian characterized the EV1 as "not technically a failure", while the Australian Financial Review argued that although the car was "successful", it was ultimately destined to fail.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The opinions were often linked to the economic infeasibility of the EV1, and some sources, such as Automotive News, have acknowledged that GM's decision to end the program helped the company avoid long-term financial losses.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, many critics have opposed GM's move to phase out the EV1.<ref name="e559"/><ref name="Fightthecrusher"/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Electric vehicle advocates, environmental organizations, and former lessees of the EV1 have accused GM of deliberately undermining its electric vehicle efforts to prevent losses in spare parts sales, and some have also alleged that the oil industry conspired to suppress the adoption of electric cars.Template:Sfnm

After the EV1's discontinuation, GM garnered a reputation as the company "that killed the electric car".<ref>Template:Multiref</ref> In 2006, Wagoner acknowledged that his decision to discontinue the EV1 electric vehicle program and to deprioritize hybrid development was his biggest regret during his time at GM. He said that while it did not directly affect the company's profitability, it did largely tarnish GM's public image.<ref name="k856">Template:Cite web</ref> Wagoner reiterated this in a National Public Radio interview following the December 2008 Senate hearings on the US auto industry bailout.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In the March 13, 2007, issue of Newsweek, GM research and development chief Larry Burns expressed regret over the company's decision to kill the plug-in hybrid EV1 prototype that engineers had developed a decade earlier: "If we could turn back the hands of time, we could have had the [Chevrolet] Volt ten years earlier", referencing the Volt as an indirect successor to the EV1.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Legacy and post-demise

The demise of the EV1 helped inspire the creation of the American battery-electric carmaker Tesla Motors. Disturbed by GM's decision to discontinue and destroy the vehicle, Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning founded Tesla Motors in July 2003.<ref name="z312">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> About six months later, Elon Musk became a major investor and assumed the role of chairman. In a 2017 Twitter post, Musk wrote: "Since big car companies were killing their EV programs, the only chance was to create an EV company, even though it was almost certain to fail".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:NoteTag

Research indicated that automakers were at least a decade behind in electric-vehicle adoption, technology, and infrastructure. While the EV1 is often viewed as ahead of its time, it could also be seen as a product of its era and the technologies available at that time. Lead–acid and NiMH batteries had existed for decades, aerodynamics were well understood, and electric motors were already widely used.<ref name="a426">Template:Cite web</ref> As part of GM's broader electrification strategy, and following the late-2010 US launch of the Volt plug-in hybrid, GM introduced the Chevrolet Spark EV in June 2013. It was the company's first all-electric passenger car sold in the US since the discontinuation of the EV1 in 1999.<ref name="NYT112812">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="t172">Template:Cite web</ref> The Spark EV was phased out in December 2016, coinciding with the introduction of the Chevrolet Bolt.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The EV1's demise is examined in the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? (2006). The film traces the history and development of the electric car, its path to commercialization, and broader issues such as air pollution, oil dependency, and climate change. It explores multiple factors behind the EV1’s cancellation, including the CARB's reversal of its mandate following pressure and lawsuits from automakers, the influence of the oil industry, anticipation surrounding future hydrogen-powered vehicles, and the perfidy of the George W. Bush administration. The documentary also details GM's efforts to argue that consumer demand for the EV1 was insufficient, followed by the company's decision to reclaim and dispose of nearly all EV1s produced.Template:Sfn

Time included the EV1 on its list of the "50 Worst Cars of All Time". While praising the vehicle's design and engineering, calling it "a marvel of engineering" and "absolutely the best electric vehicle anyone had ever seen", the magazine criticized its high production costs and the limitations of 1990s battery technology, which prevented electric cars from competing with conventional gasoline vehicles and contributed to the program's end. Writer Dan Neil lamented that the EV1 is remembered largely as a public-relations setback rather than a technological breakthrough, stating: "GM, the company that had done more to advance EV technology than any other, became the company that 'killed the electric car'."<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

See also

• History of the electric vehicle
• List of production battery electric vehicles

Print sources

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite magazine
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal

External links

• Eulogy for the EV1, EV World (archived through the Wayback Machine)
• Template:Cite book

Template:General Motors