Al-Ashraf Khalil
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Al-Malik Al-Ashraf Salāh ad-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn (Template:Langx; c. 1260s – 14 December 1293) was the eighth Turkic Bahri Mamluk sultan, succeeding his father Qalawun. He served from 12 November 1290 until his assassination in December 1293. He was well known for conquering the last of the Crusader states in Palestine after the siege of Acre in 1291. While walking with a friend, Khalil was attacked and assassinated by Baydara (his commander in chief) and his followers, who was then killed under the orders of Kitbugha.
Early life
Khalil's exact year of birth is not known, although according to the Mamluk-era historian al-Safadi, he died "in his thirties or less".<ref name="Richards37">Template:Cite book</ref> He was the second son of Sultan Qalawun (r. 1279–1290) and his mother was a woman named Qutqutiya.<ref name="Richards37"/><ref name="Northrup143">Northrup 1998, p. 143.</ref> Khalil had three brothers, as-Salih Ali, an-Nasir Muhammad and Ahmad, and two sisters.<ref name="Northrup158">Northrup 1998, p. 158.</ref> In 1284, Khalil married Ardukin, the daughter of Sayf ad-Din Nukih ibn Bayan, a Mongol emir of Qalawun.<ref name="Northrup117">Northrup 1998, p. 117.</ref> As-Salih Ali, al-Ashraf Khalil's brother, married Ardukin's sister, and both wives were chosen by Qalawun's second wife because of their Mongol ethnicity, which was considered prestigious by the Mamluks.<ref name="Northrup117"/> Khalil had two daughters with Ardukin, who are unnamed in the Mamluk sources.<ref name="Bauden">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Qalawun had proclaimed as-Salih Ali as his heir apparent in 1280. From that point on, as-Salih Ali's name was added next to Qalawun's name in treaties. Khalil's name also began to be added to treaties in the regal style of "al-Malik al-Ashraf" starting in 1285 in the treaty between Qalawun and the king of Lesser Armenia. When as-Salih Ali died in 1288, Qalawun appointed al-Ashraf Khalil as his co-sultan.<ref name="Holt103">Holt 1986, p. 103.</ref> While al-Ashraf Khalil's name was read alongside Qalawun's name in the khutbah (Friday prayer sermon) and the emirs swore their allegiance to him,<ref name="Northrup143"/> Qalawun did not sign the ahd (diploma of investiture) confirming al-Ashraf Khalil's appointment.<ref name="Northrup143"/><ref name="Holt103"/> The reason for Qalawun's apparent hesitance is not clear, but he may have considered al-Ashraf Khalil unsuitable for the sultanate or was wary of the enmity between al-Ashraf Khalil and the na'ib as-saltana (viceroy of Egypt), Emir Husam ad-Din Turuntay, who had been a strong advocate for as-Salih Ali's accession.<ref name="Northrup143"/>
Reign
Al-Ashraf Khalil succeeded Qalawun following the latter's death on 9 November 1290. He prevented Qalawun's burial for two months, either as a precaution to ensure his smooth succession or to wait until Qalawun's mausoleum was completed.<ref name="Northrup158"/> With his ascendancy, al-Ashraf Khalil absorbed his father's roughly 6,000 Mansuriyya mamluks into his own 1,200-strong,<ref name="Mazor75">Mazor 2015, p. 75.</ref> mostly Circassian,<ref name="Holt106">Holt 1986, p. 106.</ref> mamluk corps, the Ashrafiyya.<ref name="Mazor75"/> The Mansuriyya were the most powerful mamluk regiment in the sultanate and al-Ashraf Khalil sought to co-opt them.<ref name="Mazor75"/>
In the royal procession following al-Ashraf Khalil's accession to the throne, Turuntay launched an assassination attempt against al-Ashraf Khalil, but it failed.<ref name="Mazor76">Mazor 2015, pp. 75–76.</ref> Instead, al-Ashraf Khalil had Turuntay imprisoned in the Cairo Citadel.<ref name="Mazor76"/> After being heavily tortured for three days, Turuntay was put to death in November.<ref name="Mazor76"/> He was briefly replaced by Emir Sanjar al-Shuja'i al-Mansuri until the latter was dispatched to Damascus and replaced by Emir Baydara. Al-Ashraf Khalil made Baydara na'ib as-saltana and atabeg al-asakir (commander in chief). The frequent exchanging of offices between the Mansuri emirs and their frequent imprisonment and release was a phenomenon that marked al-Ashraf Khalil's three-year reign. According to historian Amir Mazor, "Al-Ashraf Khalil's policy toward the Mansuriyya was totally arbitrary, haphazard and lacked long-term political vision",<ref>Mazor 2015, p. 78.</ref> but he nonetheless did not target the Mansuri mamluks as a faction and did not replace Mansuri officeholders with his Ashrafi mamluks.<ref name="Mazor76"/>
Conquest of Acre
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Qalawun had conquered the County of Tripoli in 1289 and made clear his determination to end the Crusader presence in Syria.<ref name="Northrup157">Northrup 1998, p. 157.</ref> In November 1290, he began his march toward Acre, the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but died outside of Cairo shortly after.<ref name="Northrup157"/> With the siege plans having already been prepared by Qalawun and his lieutenants, al-Ashraf Khalil resumed his father's offensive on 2 March 1291.<ref>Northrup 1998, pp. 157–158.</ref> As he led the Mamluk army of Egypt, he sent orders to the Mamluk emirs of Syria, including the sultanate's Ayyubid vassals in Hama under al-Muzaffar III Mahmud, to assemble their mangonels and head toward Acre.<ref name="Holt104">Holt 1986, p. 104.</ref> The other Syrian Mamluk armies were from Damascus (led by Lajin), Tripoli (led by Bilban) and al-Karak (led by Baibars al-Dawadar). There are no reliable figures for the size of the Mamluk army, but it was likely a significantly larger force than that of the Crusader defenders of Acre.<ref>Asili, p.111</ref>
In May 1291, al-Ashraf Khalil's army launched the assault against Acre. Heavy fighting ensued with the Knights Templar, which controlled the fortress.<ref name="Holt104"/> By 17 June, the Mamluks captured Acre, and a number of its inhabitants fled by sea.<ref name="Holt104"/> Remaining Crusader defenders held out in some of the towers in the city, but after further fighting they surrendered.<ref name="Holt104"/> Al-Ashraf Khalil ordered the execution of the remaining defenders and inhabitants.<ref name="Holt104"/> After abundant amounts of loot were plundered from the city by the Mamluk troops, al-Ashraf Khalil had Acre's fortifications destroyed.<ref name="Holt104"/>
Capture of other Crusader fortresses
The news of the conquest of Acre reached Damascus and Cairo. Al-Ashraf Khalil entered the decorated city of Damascus with Franks chained at the feet and the captured crusader standards which were carried upside-down as a sign of their defeat. After celebrating his victory in Damascus, Khalil left for Cairo which was also decorated and celebrating.<ref>The gate of the San Andreas Church was transported from Acre to Cairo to be used in the Al-Ashraf's Mosque which the Sultan was building. Asili, p. 123</ref> Arriving at Cairo, he ordered the release of Philip Mainebeuf and the men who accompanied him to Cairo earlier.<ref>Ibn Taghri, p.9/ vol.8</ref>
Following Acre's capture, al-Ashraf Khalil and his generals proceeded to wrest control of the remaining Crusader-held fortresses along the Syrian coast.<ref name="Holt104"/> Within weeks, the Mamluks conquered Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, Haifa and Tartus.<ref name="Holt104"/> In August, the last Crusader outpost in Syria, the Templar fortress of Atlit south of Acre, was taken and on 7 August, al-Ashraf Khalil returned to Cairo in triumph as the "final victor in the long struggle with the Crusaders", according to historian Peter Malcolm Holt.<ref name="Holt104"/>
In 1292, Al-Ashraf Khalil accompanied by his vizier Ibn al-Sal'us arrived in Damascus and then travelled via Aleppo to besiege the castle of Qal'at ar-Rum (Castle of the Romans) and was known as Hromgla in Armenian. Qal'at ar-Rum, which was the seat of the Patriarch of Armenia, was besieged by more than 30 catapults<ref>Abu Al-Fida, p.386/ vol.13. According to Al-Maqrizi, al-Ashraf besieged Qal'at ar-Rum with 20 catapults. Al-Maqrizi, p.233/vol.2</ref> and was captured after 30 days by Khalil, who renamed it Qal'at al-Muslimin (Castle of the Muslims).<ref>al-Maqrizi, p.234/ vol.2</ref> Khalil left Emir al-Shuja‘i at the castle and returned to Damascus with prisoners. The population of Damascus bid farewell to the victorious Sultan on his way to Cairo at night with thousands of lighted candles. The Sultan entered Cairo through the Victory Gate (Bab al-Nasr) and was greeted by the celebrating population, also with thousands of lighted candles .
The Sultan returned to Damascus and assembled an army to invade Sis,<ref>The Armenian Catholicate moved to Sis after al-Ashraf Khalil captured Qal'at ar-Rum</ref> the capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, but an Armenian embassy in Damascus had made terms with him first. Til Hemdun, Marash and Behesni were given to the Sultan in order to maintain peace. The Armenian kingdom had thus began to diminish much like its allied Crusader states.
The crusaders' kingdom of Jerusalem had already been destroyed by Saladin, Baibars and Qalawun, and Louis IX's Seventh Crusade against Egypt ended in a complete failure, but the crusaders tried to keep their strongholds on the Syrian coast intact, hoping to be able one day to recapture what they had lost. Pope Nicholas IV tried to act but he died in 1292,<ref>Pope Nicholas IV was a promoter of the crusaders. After Qalawun recaptured Tripoli in 1289, Nicholas sent twenty galleys, which were armed in Venice, to the aid of the city of Acre. — the Templar of Tyre. Gestes des Chiprois, P.101/ part 3</ref> and the European kings, who became involved in internal conflicts and struggles,<ref>One of these conflicts was the war that broke out between England and France in 1293. see also Philip IV of France</ref> became unable to organize new effective crusades. As for the Templars, they were accused of heresy in Europe and badly persecuted by King Philip IV of France and Pope Clement V.
Sack of Dongola
After the death of the Sultan of Egypt, Qalawun, and the ascension of his son, Sultan Khalil, to the throne of Egypt, the Kingdom of Makuria which had been conquered by the emirs Izz al-Din al-Kawrani, Izz al-Din Aidmar and Sanjar al-Masrouri in the Fourth battle of Dongola as ordered by Qalawun, and it annually sent the taxes and royalties imposed on it by Egypt in accordance with the ancient Baqt agreement. The Makurian king Samamoun thought that the new Egyptian Sultan was weak and young, and this was a great misconception on his part, and after a letter that was completely deceptive to al-Ashraf Khalil in which he said that due to the attacks of the Egyptian army on his kingdom during the reign of Qalawun and Baybars, the treasury of the Kingdom of Makuria has become empty and he will not be able to pay the imposed taxes and royalties. The Egyptian Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil was known for his temper, so he sent a letter full of threats and promises to the Makurian king, a letter that struck terror in Samamoun’s heart to the point that he described his country as being ruled by women. However, these words did not fool Sultan Khalil, who went on to order the movement of the Egyptian army under the leadership of emir Izz al-Din al-Afram, who moved from Cairo and arrived in Makuria and won a decisive victory over the Makurian forces. He entered the capital, Dongola, and plundered it completely. King Samamoun fled from Makuria as he had fled before in the campaigns of Qalawun.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Threatening the Republic of Venice with invasion
In 1292, Venetian pirates kidnapped Egyptian sailors and merchants in the Mediterranean Sea. This act angered al-Ashraf Khalil’s to the point that he began to actually think about invading the Republic of Venice, becoming the only Egyptian Sultan who thought about that. It was logical at the time that he would think about invading Venice, as the Egyptian army at that time was considered one of the strongest armies in the world and in less than 3 years, he eliminated the last 8 Crusader states in Palestine and invaded the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia. The Sultan, in light of his thoughts about invading Venice, gave orders to the Egyptian Navy to arrest any ship belonging to the Republic of Venice that entered the Egyptian coast, even if for the purpose of trade. In fact, the Egyptian Navy arrested Venetian ships that landed in Alexandria, and all their goods were seized and placed in the Egyptian treasury. The Sultan ordered the Venetian sailors and merchants to be placed in prisons. This made the Republic of Venice speak officially with the Sultanate of Egypt, and they sent a high-ranking official delegation with a lot of gifts. The delegation, when it met al-Ashraf Khalil, completely denied any relationship linking them to the pirates who kidnapped the Egyptian sailors, and that they did not know anything about this subject. Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil was very mad and was determined and told them that the Venetian prisoners will not be released except when the Egyptian sailors and merchants return. Later they reached an agreement in the end that the Venetians would pay a very large ransom to release their captives, in addition to that they would hand over the pirates to Egypt and return the kidnapped Egyptians. After that, the Venetians asked the Kingdom of Aragon to mediate with them in Egypt, and a peace treaty was concluded between the Sultanate of Egypt and the Republic of Venice through the mediation of the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Incomplete Cyprus invasion
In late 1292, Cypriots kidnapped Egyptian sailors in the Mediterranean Sea. Al-Ashraf, who was known for his extreme pride and temper, ordered immediately to prepare and build 100 huge warships to invade all of Cyprus. He preferred to oversee the construction of these ships himself, and every now and then he would visit the ports and repeat the same sentence, with anger in his face:<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>
"Cyprus... Cyprus... to the grave"<ref name=":1" />
This means that Cyprus would be buried, but Al-Ashraf died before an invasion of Cyprus could be launched and not until the era of al-Ashraf Barsbay did the Mamluks launch a campaign against Cyprus.<ref name=":1" />
Mongol threat
In 1293, Mongol ruler Gaykhatu sent his messengers with a threatening letter to the Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil saying:<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>
"The Khan wishes to enter Aleppo and reside in it, it belongs to the conquests of his father Hulagu Khan by his sword, if you do not allow that, then he will cross to the Levant."<ref name=":0" />
Al-Ashraf Khalil immediately responded to them, while smiling and said:<ref name=":0" />
"Alhamdulillah my brother the Khan agreed to what was in my mind and I talked about it with my princes that I request Baghdad from my brother, so if he does not allow that, I rode and conquered it with my troops, ravaged his country, killed his men, took it by force and appointed a representative there. Baghdad is the house of Islam and I wish to return it back to Islam but let him know we will see who enters whose country's first."<ref name=":0" />
He took them out to where he had dropped them off and immediately wrote to the deputies of the Levant to prepare the accommodation and to get the soldiers ready to cross the Euphrates River and invade Baghdad. He presented to the princes and soldiers of Egypt to put on the war machine and come to Salah al-Din Square. Mongol messengers were sent to watch the soldiers. Most of the people of Cairo and Egypt went out to see the parade of the soldiers. It was a memorable day. The Sultan rode after the noon call to prayer, wearing a qarqal (an iron plate covered with brocade), and a keffiyeh over his head, and a shattaf in his hand. He entered the field, followed by the princes, one by one, with the latest war machines on them, and each of them carrying a spear on their robes. They fought and fled, displaying their war flags, until the afternoon call to prayer came.<ref name=":0" /> This was the third military parade he presented during his sultanate. When their matter was over, he came down, took off his clothes, and made himself ready. He summoned the Mongol messengers and said to them:<ref name=":0" />
"Inform my brother Gaykhatu that whoever has such soldiers with him does not stop entering your country or the country of others. I swear on my father's grave, I will enter his place and destroy the homes of all the Mongols and make it an Islamic country until the Day of Resurrection, unless my time comes!"<ref name=":0" />
Then he sent them back, and wrote urging the deputies, but his death was soon before he reached his hope following that.<ref name=":0" />
Future ambitions
Al-Ashraf Khalil once stated that he has plans of invading Constantinople, Persia and Iraq:<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref>
"I am the king of the world and the sultan of the earth. God willing, we will conquer the East (Persia), the Rums (Byzantines; Constantinople), and Iraq, and we will possess the countries from the setting of the sun to the rising of the sun, and God will support me."<ref name=":2" />
Domestic conflicts and assassination
Militarily, Al-Ashraf Khalil possessed the vigor and capability of two of his predecessors, Baibars and his father Qalawun. But many Emirs disliked him. He started his reign by executing and imprisoning a few prominent Emirs of his father, among them the vice-Sultan Turuntay. During the battle for Acre he arrested Hosam ad-Din Lajin and later after he returned to Cairo he executed Sunqur al-Ashqar,Template:Efn and a few Emirs. Khalil continued his father's policy of replacing Turkish Mamluks with Circassians, a policy which contributed in the intensification of the rivalry among the Mamluks. After his victories against the Franks, arrogance got hold of al-Ashraf Khalil, he treated the Emirs roughly and began to sign messages and documents with the letter "KH" only.<ref>In Arabic "Kh" is one letter (خ).</ref> In addition, his Vizier Ibn al-Salus was envied by many Emirs and by the vice-Sultan Baydara in particular. Ibn al-Salus who, originally, was neither a Mamluk nor an Emir but a merchant from Damascus, became the most influential official during the reign of Khalil. While Al-Ashraf was rough on the Emirs, he was very generous towards Ibn al-Salus who did not treat the Emirs with respect.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, pp.221–222 and 251/vol.2. Ibn Taghri, p.45/vol.8. Abu Al-Fida, p.395/vol.13</ref> Ibn al-Salus was involved in the unjustly persecution of the supreme judge of Egypt Ibn Bint al-A'az, as he was involved in provoking the Sultan against Baydara on several occasions.
In December 1293, Al-Ashraf Khalil, accompanied by Ibn al-Salus, Baydara and other Emirs went to Turug<ref>Now Kom Turuga</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> in northern Egypt on a bird-hunting expedition. He sent Ibn Al-Salus to the nearby city of Alexandria to bring materials and to collect the taxes. Arriving at Alexandria, Ibn Al-Salus found out that the deputies of Baydara had already taken everything. On receiving a message from Ibn Al-Salus with this news, Al-Ashraf summoned Baydara to his Dihlis and insulted and threatened him in the presence of other Emirs. The distressed Baydar left the Dihlis and called Lajin, Qara Sunqur and other Emirs and together they decided to kill the Sultan. On 14 December,<ref name="Bosworth1989">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> while the Sultan was walking with his friend Emir Shihab ad-Din Ahmad he was attacked and assassinated by Baydara and his followers. The Emirs who struck the Sultan after Baydara were Hosam ad-Din Lajin and Bahadir Ras Nubah followed by other Emirs. After the assassination of Al-Ashraf Khalil, Baydara and his followers went to the Dihliz and proclaimed Baydara the new Sultan. But Baydara was soon arrested by the Sultani Mamluks and Emirs.Template:Efn Baydara was killed by the Sultani Emirs led by Kitbugha<ref>Kitbugha became Sultan of Egypt in 1295. See al-Adil Kitbugha</ref> and Baibars al-Jashnikir<ref>Baibars al-Jashnikir (Baibars II) became Sultan of Egypt in 1308. See Baibars II</ref> and his head was sent to Cairo. Ibn al-Salus was arrested in Alexandria and was sent to Cairo where he was mistreated and at last beaten to death. The Emirs who were involved in the assassination of Al-Ashraf Khalil were severely punished and executed. Lajin and Qara Sunqur fled and disappeared.Template:Efn
After the death of Al-Ashraf Khalil, the Emirs decided to install his 9-year-old brother Al-Nasir Muhammad as the new Sultan with Kitbugha as vice-Sultan and al-Shuja‘i as the new Vizier. But the death of Al-Ashraf Khalil was concealed for some time. While Al-Ashraf was dead, his brother Al-Nasir Muhammad was proclaimed Vice-Sultan and heir. A message from Egypt to the Syrian Emirs said: "I appointed my brother al-Malik al-Nasir Muhammad as my Vicegerent and heir so that when I go to fight the enemy he replaces me ".<ref>According to Al-Maqrizi this letter was sent according to the instruction given by Emir al-Shuja‘i. Al-Maqrizi, p.249/vol.2</ref> As soon as everything was under control the death of Al-Ahraf Khalil was revealed to the public in Egypt and Syria.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, pp.249–250/vol.2</ref> He was buried in a mausoleum attached to a madrasa that he commissioned and built in 1288 (prior to his accession to the throne). His funerary complex, located in the Southern Cemetery of Cairo, is partly ruined today, though the domed structure over his tomb remains standing.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Al-Ashraf Khalil ruled about three years and two months. He had two daughters. Besides being remembered as the conqueror of Acre, he was remembered by Muslim historians as an intelligent Sultan who was fond of reading and learning.<ref>Also the chronicler Ludolph of Suchem described Al-Ashrafe Khalil as "an exceedingly wise man".Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, p.42</ref>
Coinage
Coins of al-Ashraf Khalil were unique in Mamluk coinage history. New kinds of titles were inscribed on his coins, including: al-Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Salah al-Din Nasir al-Milah al-Muhamadiyah Muhyyi al-Dawalah al-Abasiyah (The Sultan King al-Ashraf Salah al-Din the Promoter of the Muhammadan Nation and the Revitalizer of the Abbasid Caliphate) and al-Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Salah al-Donya wa al-Din Qasim Amir al-mu'minin (The Sultan King al-Ashraf reform of temporal world and faith sharer of the Emir of the faithful), "Emir of the faithful" being the title of the Abbasid Caliph. His father Qalawun was also mentioned on Al-Ashraf's coins as: Mawlana al-Sultan al-Malik al-Mansur (Our benefactor the Sultan King al-Mansur).<ref>Mahdi, p. 97</ref>
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
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- Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, de itinere Terræ Sanctæ, University of Michigan 1851
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Primary sources
- Abu al-Fida, The Concise History of Humanity. (The historian Abu al-Fida took part in the sieges of Tripoli and Acre.)
- Al-Maqrizi, Al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi Dhikr al-Khitat wa al-'athar, Matabat Aladab, Cairo, 1996, Template:ISBN
- Al-Maqrizi, Al-Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-Kotob, 1997.
- Bohn, Henry G., The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades, AMS Press, 1969.
- (In French) Bouriant, Urbain, Description Topographique et Historique de l'Egypte, Paris, 1895
- Ibn Taghri, al-Nujum al-Zahirah Fi Milook Misr wa al-Qahirah, Dar al-Kotob, Beirut, 1992
- Ludolph of Suchem, Description of the Holy Land and of the Way Thither. Translated by Aubrey Stewart. London: Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, 1895. Reprinted in James Brundage, The Crusades: A Documentary History, Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press 1962
- William Popper, Yusef, History of Egypt, 1382–1469 AD. Translated by Abu L-Mahasin ibn Taghri Birdi, University of California Press 1954
- The Templar of Tyre, Chronicle (Getes des Chiprois), Published by Crawford, P., Ashgate Publishing. Ltd, Cyprus 2003. Template:ISBN
External links
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