Anti-Chinese sentiment
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Anti-Chinese sentiment or Sinophobia refers to prejudice, hatred, hostility, and discrimination that is directed towards Chinese people or Chinese culture.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Macmillan dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.</ref><ref>The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved July 7, 2022.</ref><ref>Collons Dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
It is frequently directed at Chinese minorities which live outside Greater China and it involves immigration, nationalism, political ideologies, disparity of wealth, in-group loyalty, the past tributary system of Imperial China, majority-minority relations, imperial legacies, and racism.<ref name="Analysis" /><ref name="Aaron-Langmaid">Aaron Langmaid. Chinese Aussie rules players suffer abuse, racism Template:Webarchive Herald Sun February 21, 2013</ref><ref name="kazin" />Template:NoteTag
A variety of popular cultural clichés and negative stereotypes of Chinese people have existed around the world since the twentieth century, and they are frequently conflated with a variety of popular cultural clichés and negative stereotypes of other Asian ethnic groups, known as the Yellow Peril.<ref name="wu">William F. Wu, The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American Fiction, 1850–1940, Archon Press, 1982.</ref> Some individuals may harbor prejudice or hatred against Chinese people due to history, racism, modern politics, cultural differences, propaganda, or ingrained stereotypes,<ref name="wu"/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> often fuelled by reports of uncouth behavior from some Chinese nationals.<ref name="tele_mainlander_chinese_tourists">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="inter_dog_prc">Template:Cite web</ref>
The COVID-19 pandemic led to a resurgence of Sinophobia, the manifestations of it ranged from covert acts of discrimination such as microaggression and stigmatization, exclusion and shunning, to more overt forms of discrimination, such as outright verbal abuse and physical violence.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Statistics and background
In 2013, Pew Research Center from the United States conducted a survey on sinophobia, finding that China was viewed favorably in half (19 of 38) of the nations surveyed, excluding China itself. The highest levels of support came from Asia in Malaysia (81%) and Pakistan (81%); African nations of Kenya (78%), Senegal (77%) and Nigeria (76%); as well as Latin America, particularly in countries heavily engaging with the Chinese market, such as Venezuela (71%), Brazil (65%) and Chile (62%).<ref name="Chapter-3">Chapter 3. Attitudes toward China Template:Webarchive - Pew Global Attitudes. Posted on July 18, 2013.</ref>
Anti-China sentiment
Anti-China sentiment has remained persistent in the West and other Asian countries: only 28% of Germans and Italians and 37% of Americans viewed China favorably while in Japan, just 5% of respondents had a favorable opinion of the country. 11 of the 38 nations viewed China unfavorably by over 50%. Japan was polled to have the most anti-China sentiment, where 93% saw the People's Republic in a negative light. There were also majorities in Germany (64%), Italy (62%), and Israel (60%) who held negative views of China. Germany saw a large increase of anti-China sentiment, from 33% disfavor in 2006 to 64% in the 2013 survey, with such views existing despite Germany's success in exporting to China.<ref name="Chapter-3" />
Positive views of China
Respondents in the Balkans have held generally positive views of China, according to 2020 polling. An International Republican Institute survey from February to March found that only in Kosovo (75%) did most respondents express an unfavourable opinion of the country, while majorities in Serbia (85%), Montenegro (68%), North Macedonia (56%), and Bosnia (52%) expressed favourable views.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A GLOBSEC poll on October found that the highest percentage of those who saw China as a threat were in the Czech Republic (51%), Poland (34%), and Hungary (24%), while it was seen as least threatening in Balkan countries such as Bulgaria (3%), Serbia (13%), and North Macedonia (14%). Reasons for threat perception were generally linked to the country's economic influence.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
According to Arab Barometer polls, views of China in the Arab world have been relatively positive, with data from March to April 2021 showing that most respondents in Algeria (65%), Morocco (62%), Libya (60%), Tunisia (59%), and Iraq (56%) held favourable views of the country while views were less favourable in Lebanon (38%) and Jordan (34%).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
History
Looting and sacking of national treasures
Historical records document the existence of anti-Chinese sentiment throughout the history of China's imperial wars.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Lord Palmerston was responsible for sparking the First Opium War (1839–1842) with Qing China. He considered Chinese culture "uncivilized", and his negative views on China played a significant role in his decision to issue a declaration of war.<ref name="Lovell Julia">Template:Cite book</ref> This disdain became increasingly common throughout the Second Opium War (1856–1860), when repeated attacks against foreign traders in China inflamed anti-Chinese sentiment abroad.Template:Citation needed Following the defeat of China in the Second Opium War, Lord Elgin, upon his arrival in Peking in 1860, ordered the sacking and burning of China's imperial Summer Palace in vengeance.Template:Citation needed
Chinese Exclusion Act 1882
In the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed in response to growing Sinophobia. It prohibited all immigration of Chinese laborers and turned those already in the country into second-class persons.<ref name="yeefow">Template:Cite web</ref> The 1882 Act was the first U.S. immigration law to target a specific ethnicity or nationality.<ref name="Crean">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Meanwhile, during the mid-19th century in Peru, Chinese were used as slave labor and they were not allowed to hold any important positions in Peruvian society.<ref name="Justina-Hwang">Justina Hwang. Chinese in Peru in the 19th century Template:Webarchive - Modern Latin American, Brown University Library.</ref>
Chinese workers in England
Chinese workers had been a fixture on London's docks since the mid-eighteenth century, when they arrived as sailors who were employed by the East India Company, importing tea and spices from the Far East. Conditions on those long voyages were so dreadful that many sailors decided to abscond and take their chances on the streets rather than face the return journey. Those who stayed generally settled around the bustling docks, running laundries and small lodging houses for other sailors or selling exotic Asian produce. By the 1880s, a small but recognizable Chinese community had developed in the Limehouse area, increasing Sinophobic sentiments among other Londoners, who feared the Chinese workers might take over their traditional jobs due to their willingness to work for much lower wages and longer hours than other workers in the same industries. The entire Chinese population of London was only in the low hundreds—in a city whose entire population was roughly estimated to be seven million—but nativist feelings ran high, as was evidenced by the Aliens Act 1905, a bundle of legislation which sought to restrict the entry of poor and low-skilled foreign workers.<ref name="Unspeakable-Affections-Archived-November-16">Unspeakable Affections Template:Webarchive - Paris Review. May 5, 2017.</ref> Chinese Londoners also became involved with illegal criminal organisations, further spurring Sinophobic sentiments.<ref name="Unspeakable-Affections-Archived-November-16" /><ref>Daniel Renshaw, "Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the-century Britain." Patterns of Prejudice 50.1 (2016): 38-60. online Template:Webarchive</ref>
By region
East Asia
Korea
Discriminatory views of Chinese people have been reported,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and ethnic-Chinese Koreans have faced prejudices including what is said, to be a widespread criminal stigma.<ref name="Seoul-National-University-2018">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Increased anti-Chinese sentiments had reportedly led to online comments related to violent anti-Chinese racism.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Seoul-National-University-2018" />
Hong Kong
Template:See also Anti-Chinese sentiment in Hong Kong is mostly driven by political opposition to the PRC, but it is also motivated by racist hostility toward mainland Chinese.
In 2012, a group of Hong Kong residents published a newspaper advertisement depicting mainland visitors and immigrants as locusts.<ref name="Juliana Liu">Template:Cite news</ref> In February 2014, about 100 Hong Kongers harassed mainland tourists and shoppers during what they styled an "anti-locust" protest in Kowloon. In response, the Equal Opportunities Commission of Hong Kong proposed an extension of the territory's race-hate laws to cover mainlanders.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Strong anti-mainland xenophobia has also been documented amidst the 2019 protests,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> with reported instances of protesters attacking Mandarin-speakers and mainland-linked businesses.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Japan
A survey in 2017 suggested that 51% of Chinese respondents had experienced tenancy discrimination.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Another report in the same year noted a significant bias against Chinese visitors from the media and some of the Japanese locals.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Mongolia
Mongolian nationalist and Neo-Nazi groups are reported to be hostile to China,<ref name="Tania-Branigan-2010">Template:Cite web</ref> and Mongolians traditionally hold unfavorable views of the country.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The common stereotype is that China is attempting to undermine Mongolian sovereignty in order to eventually incorporate it into China (the Republic of China has claimed Mongolia as part of its territory, see Outer Mongolia). Fear and hatred of erliiz (Template:Langx, Template:IPA, literally, double seeds), a derogatory term for people of mixed Han Chinese and Mongol ethnicity,<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Circular reference</ref> is a common phenomena in Mongolian politics. Erliiz are seen as a Chinese plot of genetic pollution to chip away at Mongolian sovereignty, and allegations of Chinese ancestry are used as a political weapon in election campaigns. Several small Neo-Nazi groups opposing Chinese influence and mixed Chinese couples are present within Mongolia, such as Tsagaan Khas.<ref name="Tania-Branigan-2010" />
Taiwan
In the late 1940s, the anti-mainland Chinese term "The dogs go and the pigs come" (狗去豬來) became popular in Taiwanese society as a result of dissatisfaction with the Republic of China controlled by a one-party system of KMT's rule and the February 28 incident caused by KMT regime.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
The English slogan "Say No To China, Say Yes To Taiwan" is often used by Taiwanese independence activists; the term is also related to opposition to the People's Republic of China, but it further denies the Chinese identity, including the Republic of China.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
Southeast Asia
Malaysia
Due to race-based politics and Bumiputera policy, there had been several incidents of racial conflict between the Malays and Chinese before the 1969 riots. For example, in Penang, hostility between the races turned into violence during the centenary celebration of George Town in 1957 which resulted in several days of fighting and a number of deaths,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and there were further disturbances in 1959 and 1964, as well as a riot in 1967 which originated as a protest against currency devaluation but turned into racial killings.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Singapore, the antagonism between the races led to the 1964 Race Riots which contributed to the expulsion of Singapore from Malaysia on August 9, 1965. The 13 May Incident was perhaps the deadliest race riot to have occurred in Malaysia with an official combined death toll of 196<ref name="hwang_72">Hwang, p. 72.</ref> (143 Chinese, 25 Malays, 13 Indians, and 15 others of undetermined ethnicity),Template:Sfn but with higher estimates by other observers reaching around 600-800+ total deaths.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Malaysia's ethnic quota system has been regarded as discriminatory towards the ethnic Chinese (and Indian) community, in favor of ethnic Malay Muslims,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which has reportedly created a brain drain in the country. In 2015, supporters of Najib Razak's party reportedly marched in the thousands through Chinatown to support him, and assert Malay political power with threats to burn down shops, which drew criticism from China's ambassador to Malaysia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
It was reported in 2019 that relations between ethnic Chinese Malaysians and Malays were "at their lowest ebb", and fake news posted online of mainland Chinese indiscriminately receiving citizenship in the country had been stoking racial tensions. The primarily Chinese-based Democratic Action Party in Malaysia has also reportedly faced an onslaught of fake news depicting it as unpatriotic, anti-Malay, and anti-Muslim.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Philippines
The Spanish introduced the first anti-Chinese laws in the Philippine archipelago. The Spanish massacred or expelled the Chinese several times from Manila, and the Chinese responded by fleeing either to La Pampanga or to territories outside colonial control, particularly the Sulu Sultanate, which they in turn supported in their wars against the Spanish authorities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Chinese refugees not only ensured that the Sūg people were supplied with the requisite arms but also joined their new compatriots in combat operations against the Spaniards during the centuries of Spanish–Moro conflict.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Furthermore, racial classification from the Spanish and American administrations has labeled ethnic Chinese as alien. This association between 'Chinese' and 'foreigner' have facilitated discrimination against the ethnic Chinese population in the Philippines; many ethnic Chinese were denied citizenship or viewed as antithetical to a Filipino nation-state.<ref name="Chu 365–391">Template:Cite journal</ref> In addition to this, Chinese people have been associated with wealth in the background of great economic disparity among the local population. This perception has only contributed to ethnic tensions in the Philippines, with the ethnic Chinese population being portrayed as being a major party in controlling the economy.<ref name="Chu 365–391" />
Indonesia
The Dutch introduced anti-Chinese laws in the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch colonialists started the first massacre of Chinese in the 1740 Batavia massacre in which tens of thousands died. The Java War (1741–43) followed shortly thereafter.<ref> History: October 9, 1740: Chinezenmoord, The Batavia Massacre. Posted on History Headline. Posted by Major Dan on October 9, 2016.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web Template:Dead link</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The asymmetrical economic position between ethnic Chinese Indonesians and indigenous Indonesians has incited anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer majorities. During the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, in which more than 500,000 people died (mostly non-Chinese Indonesians),<ref>Indonesian academics fight burning of books on 1965 coup Template:Webarchive, smh.com.au</ref> ethnic Chinese were killed and their properties looted and burned as a result of anti-Chinese racism on the excuse that Dipa "Amat" Aidit had brought the PKI closer to China.<ref>Vickers (2005), p. 158</ref><ref name="Analysis">Template:Cite news</ref> In the May 1998 riots of Indonesia following the fall of President Suharto, many ethnic Chinese were targeted by other Indonesian rioters, resulting in extensive looting. However, when Chinese-owned supermarkets were targeted for looting most of the dead were not ethnic Chinese, but the looters themselves, who were burnt to death by the hundreds when a fire broke out.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Myanmar
Chinese people in Myanmar have also been subject to discriminatory laws and rhetoric in Burmese media and popular culture.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Thailand
Template:See also Historically, Thailand (known as Siam before 1939) has been seen as a China-friendly country, owing to close Chinese-Siamese relations, a large proportion of the Thai population being of Chinese descent and Chinese having been assimilated into mainstream society over the years.
In 1914, King Vajiravudh (Rama VI) originated the phrase "Jews of the Orient" to describe Chinese.<ref name=":Han">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp He published an essay using Western antisemitic tropes to characterize Chinese as "vampires who steadily suck dry an unfortunate victim's lifeblood" because of their perceived lack of loyalty to Siam and the fact that they sent money back to China.<ref name=":Han" />Template:Rp
During 1930s to 1950s, Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram launched a massive Thaification, the main purpose of which was Central Thai supremacy, including the oppression of Thailand's Chinese population and restricting Thai Chinese culture by banning the teaching of the Chinese language and forcing Thai Chinese to adopt Thai names.<ref>Luang Phibunsongkhram Template:Webarchive. Posted in Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref> Plaek's obsession with creating a pan-Thai nationalist agenda caused resentment among general officers (most of Thai general officers at the time were of Teochew background) until he was removed from office in 1944.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Vietnam
There are strong anti-Chinese sentiments among the Vietnamese population, stemming in part from a past thousand years of Chinese rule in Northern Vietnam. A long history of Sino-Vietnamese conflicts followed, with repeated wars over the centuries. Though current relations are peaceful, numerous wars were fought between the two nations in the past, from the time of the Early Lê dynasty (10th century)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to the Sino-Vietnamese War from 1979 to 1989.
Shortly after the 1975 Vietnamese defeat of the United States in the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese government persecuted the Chinese community by confiscating property and businesses owned by overseas Chinese in Vietnam and expelling the ethnic Chinese minority into southern Chinese provinces.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In February 1976, Vietnam implemented registration programs in the south.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp Ethnic Chinese in Vietnam were required to adopt Vietnamese citizenship or leave the country.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp In early 1977, Vietnam implemented what it described as a purification policy in its border areas to keep Chinese border residents to the Chinese side of the border.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp Following another discriminatory policy introduced in March 1978, a large number of Chinese fled from Vietnam to southern China.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp China and Vietnam attempted to negotiate issues related to Vietnam's treatment of ethnic Chinese, but these negotiations failed to resolve the issues.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp During the August 1978 Youyi Pass Incident, the Vietnamese army and police expelled 2,500 refugees across the order into China.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp Vietnamese authorities beat and stabbed refugees during the incident, including 9 Chinese civilian border workers.<ref name=":Wang" />Template:Rp From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat (mainly former South Vietnam citizens fleeing the Vietcong) as refugees or were expelled across the land border with China.<ref>Griffin, Kevin. Vietnamese Template:Webarchive. Discover Vancouver.</ref>
The 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in part from Vietnam's mistreatment of ethnic Chinese.<ref name=":Wang">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The conflict fueled racist discrimination against and consequent emigration by the country's ethnic Chinese population.These mass emigrations and deportations only stopped in 1989 following the Đổi mới reforms in Vietnam.Template:Citation needed
Cambodia
The first anti-Chinese sentiment was witnessed in Cambodia during the Lon Nol régime. This was followed by the right-wing military dictatorship who made the Chinese carry special papers with them, often as a sign of Khmer supremacy. Although some Khmer Rouge members were ethnic Chinese (Khieu Samphan, Ieng Sary, Nuon Chea, Kaing Guek Eav, even Pol Pot himself - although he went to great lengths to conceal his Chinese ancestry), and were less wary about the Chinese than they were with the Vietnamese, they carried on the racial policies of Lon Nol, although more extreme. Ethnic Chinese were banned from speaking Chinese, and Chinese New Year was outlawed. When the Khmer Rouge were overthrown by a communist government under the influence of Vietnam, some anti-Chinese laws were lifted, but were still kept in place. The Khmer Rouge had managed to kill around 200,000 ethnic Chinese during their rule.
South Asia
India
During the Sino-Indian War, the Chinese faced hostile sentiment all over India. Chinese businesses were investigated for links to the Chinese government and many Chinese were interned in prisons in North India.Template:Citation needed The Indian government passed the Defence of India Act in December 1962,<ref name="Mazumdar-2010">Template:Cite web</ref> permitting the "apprehension and detention in custody of any person hostile to the country." The broad language of the act allowed for the arrest of any person simply for having a Chinese surname or a Chinese spouse.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The Indian government incarcerated thousands of Chinese-Indians in an internment camp in Deoli, Rajasthan, where they were held for years without trial. The last internees were not released until 1967. Thousands more Chinese-Indians were forcibly deported or coerced to leave India. Nearly all internees had their properties sold off or looted.<ref name="Mazumdar-2010" /> Even after their release, the Chinese Indians faced many restrictions on their freedom. They could not travel freely until the mid-1990s.<ref name="Mazumdar-2010" /> India and China have cold relations and have been found to engage in anti-Indian works, such as cyber slavery in Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos. They also control US immigration mafia, like donkey routes which have led to deportations after US President Donald Trump began anti-immigration and deportation pushes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Pakistan
Oceania
Australia
The Chinese population was active in political and social life in Australia. Community leaders protested against discriminatory legislation and attitudes, and despite the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, Chinese communities around Australia participated in parades and celebrations of Australia's Federation and the visit of the Duke and Duchess of York.
Although the Chinese communities in Australia were generally peaceful and industrious, resentment flared up against them because of their different customs and traditions. In the mid-19th century, terms such as "dirty, disease-ridden, [and] insect-like" were used in Australia and New Zealand to describe the Chinese.<ref name="reviewofEbySouth">Template:Cite web</ref>
The causes of friction in local Australian communities were not merely rooted in bigotry or fear (although these elements were also present), but were substantially based on negative effects communities were observing and experiencing independently everywhere. As occurred in much of the western world, Chinese labourers typically arrived with temporary migration intentions, undercut local workers, and regularly sent remittance to family who remained in China, rather than investing substantially in local communities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A poll tax was passed in Victoria in 1855 to restrict Chinese immigration. New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia followed suit. Such legislation did not distinguish between naturalised, British citizens, Australian-born, and Chinese-born individuals. The tax in Victoria and New South Wales was repealed in the 1860s.
In the 1870s and 1880s, the growing trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions, and refused unionisation.<ref name="Markey">Template:Cite web</ref> Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas.<ref name="Markey" /> It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned.<ref name="Griffiths">Template:Cite web</ref> Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875 and 1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation that excluded all further Chinese immigration.<ref name="Griffiths" />
In 1888, following protests and strike actions, an inter-colonial conference agreed to reinstate and increase the severity of restrictions on Chinese immigration. This provided the basis for the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and the seed for the White Australia policy, which although relaxed over time, was not fully abandoned until the early 1970s.
The Chifley government's Darwin Lands Acquisition Act 1945 compulsorily acquired Template:Convert of land owned by Chinese-Australians in Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory, leading to the end of the local Chinatown. Two years earlier, the territory's administrator Aubrey Abbott had written to Joseph Carrodus, secretary of the Department of the Interior, proposing a combination of compulsory acquisition and conversion of the land to leasehold in order to effect "the elimination of undesirable elements which Darwin has suffered from far too much in the past" and stated that he hoped to "entirely prevent the Chinese quarter forming again". He further observed that "if land is acquired from the former Chinese residents there is really no need for them to return as they have no other assets". The territory's civilian population had mostly been evacuated during the war and the former Chinatown residents returned to find their homes and businesses reduced to rubble.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
New Zealand
In the 1800s, Chinese citizens were encouraged to immigrate to New Zealand because they were needed to fulfill agricultural jobs during a time of white labor shortage. The arrival of foreign laborers was met with hostility and the formation of anti-Chinese immigrant groups, such as the Anti-Chinese League, the Anti-Asiatic League, the Anti-Chinese Association, and the White New Zealand League. Official discrimination began with the Chinese Immigrants Act of 1881, limiting Chinese emigration to New Zealand and excluding Chinese citizens from major jobs. Anti-Chinese sentiment had declined by the mid-20th century.
Papua New Guinea
In May 2009, during the Papua New Guinea riots, Chinese-owned businesses were looted by gangs in the capital city Port Moresby, amid simmering anti-Chinese sentiment reported in the country.<ref name="PNG riots hit Chinese businesses">Template:Cite news</ref> There are fears that these riots will force many Chinese business owners and entrepreneurs to leave the South Pacific country, which would invariably lead to further damage on an impoverished economy that had an 80% unemployment rate.<ref name="PNG riots hit Chinese businesses" /> Thousands of people were reportedly involved in the riots.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Tonga
In 2000, Tongan noble Tu'ivakano of Nukunuku banned Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District in Tonga. This followed complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.<ref>"No More Chinese!" Template:Webarchive, Tongatapu.net</ref>
In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in [[Nukuʻalofa|NukuTemplate:Okinaalofa]].<ref name="The-Pacific-Proxy">"The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan" Template:Webarchive, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, February 7, 2007</ref><ref>"Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots" Template:Webarchive, People's Daily, November 17, 2006</ref>
Solomon Islands
In 2006, Honiara's Chinatown suffered damage when it was looted and burned by rioters following a contested election. Ethnic Chinese businessmen were falsely blamed for bribing members of the Solomon Islands' Parliament. The government of Taiwan was the one that supported the then-current government of the Solomon Islands. The Chinese businessmen were mainly small traders from mainland China and had no interest in local politics.<ref name="The-Pacific-Proxy" />
Europe
Anti-Chinese sentiment became more common as China was becoming a major source of immigrants for the west (including the Western United States).<ref name="kazin">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Numerous Chinese immigrants to North America were attracted by wages offered by large railway companies in the late 19th century as the companies built the transcontinental railroads.
Anti-Chinese policies persisted in the 20th century in the English-speaking world, including the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, anti-Chinese zoning laws and restrictive covenants, the policies of Richard Seddon, and the White Australia policy.
France
In France, there has been a long history of systemic racism towards the Chinese population, with many people stereotyping them as easy targets for crime.<ref name="Ponniah">Template:Cite web</ref> As a result, France's ethnic Chinese population have been common victims of racism and crime, which include assaults, robbery, and murder; it is common for Chinese business owners to have their businesses robbed and destroyed.<ref name="Ponniah" /> There have been rising incidents of anti-Chinese racism in France; many Chinese, including French celebrity Frederic Chau, want more support from the French government.<ref name="Ponniah" /> In September 2016, at least 15,000 Chinese participated in an anti-Asian racism protest in Paris.<ref name="Ponniah" />
Germany
In 2016, Günther Oettinger, the former European Commissioner for Digital Economy and Society, called Chinese people derogatory names, including "sly dogs", in a speech to executives in Hamburg and refused to apologize for several days.Template:Citation needed
Italy
Although historical relations between two were friendly and even Marco Polo paid a visit to China, during the Boxer Rebellion, Italy was part of Eight-Nation Alliance against the rebellion, thus this had stemmed anti-Chinese sentiment in Italy.<ref>How did the Boxer Rebellion unite Imperial Powers and create Chinese Nationalism? Template:Webarchive. Posted on Daily History.</ref> Italian troops looted, burnt, and stole a lot of Chinese goods to Italy, many are still being displayed in Italian museums.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The 1969 hit song Arrivano i cinesi (the Chinese are coming) by Bruno Lauzi used anti-Chinese racism to criticize Italians who drew political inspiration from the Maoist model, describing them as "getting all yellow," and singing that they would soon turn "small, fast, and mute" if they kept obsessing over their "special book" (Quotations by Chairman Mao Zedong).<ref name=":2322">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp
Portugal
In the 16th century, increasing sea trades between Europe to China had led Portuguese merchants to China, however Portuguese military ambitions for power and its fear of China's interventions and brutality had led to the growth of sinophobia in Portugal. Galiote Pereira, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who was imprisoned by Chinese authorities, claimed China's juridical treatment known as bastinado was so horrible as it hit on human flesh, becoming the source of fundamental anti-Chinese sentiment later; as well as brutality, the cruelty of China and Chinese tyranny.<ref>Ricardo Padron (2014).Sinophobia vs. Sinofilia in the 16th Century Iberian World Template:Webarchive. Instituto Cultural do Governo da R.A.E de Macau.</ref> With the Ming dynasty's brutal reactions on Portuguese merchants following the conquest of Malacca,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> sinophobia became widespread in Portugal, and widely practiced until the First Opium War, which the Qing dynasty was forced to cede Macao to Portugal.<ref>Duarte Drumond Braga (2017). de portugal a macau: Filosofia E Literatura No Diálogo Das Culturas Template:Webarchive. Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Letras.</ref>Template:NoteTag
Russia
Spain
Spain first issued anti-Chinese legislation when Limahong, a Chinese pirate, attacked Spanish settlements in the Philippines. One of his famous actions was a failed invasion of Manila in 1574, which he launched with the support of Chinese and Moro pirates.<ref>The story of Li-ma-hong and his failed attempt to conquer Manila in 1574 Template:Webarchive. Posted on Wednesday October 24, 2012.</ref> The Spanish conquistadors massacred the Chinese or expelled them from Manila several times, notably the autumn 1603 massacre of Chinese in Manila, and the reasons for this uprising remain unclear. Its motives range from the desire of the Chinese to dominate Manila, to their desire to abort the Spaniards' moves which seemed to lead to their elimination. The Spaniards quelled the rebellion and massacred around 20,000 Chinese. The Chinese responded by fleeing to the Sultanate of Sulu and supporting the Moro Muslims in their war against the Spanish. The Chinese supplied the Moros with weapons and joined them in directly fighting against the Spanish during the Spanish–Moro conflict. Spain also upheld a plan to conquer China, but it never materialized.<ref>Samuel Hawley. The Spanish Plan to Conquer China Template:Webarchive.</ref>
United Kingdom
15% of ethnic Chinese reported racial harassment in 2016, which was the highest percentage out of all ethnic minorities in the UK.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Chinese community has been victims of racially aggravated attacks and murders, verbal accounts of racism, and vandalism. There is also a lack of reporting on anti-Chinese discrimination in the UK, notably violence against Chinese Britons.<ref name="Thomas-2015">Template:Cite news</ref>
The ethnic slur "chink" has been used against the Chinese community; Dave Whelan, the former owner of Wigan Athletic F.C., was fined £50,000 and suspended for six weeks by The Football Association after using the term in an interview; Kerry Smith resigned as an election candidate after it was reported he used similar language.<ref name="Thomas-2015" />
Professor Gary Craig from Durham University carried out research about the Chinese population in the UK, and concluded that hate crimes against the Chinese community are getting worse, adding that British Chinese people experience "perhaps even higher levels of racial violence or harassment than those experienced by any other minority group but that the true extent to their victimization is often overlooked because victims were unwilling to report it."<ref name="Thomas-2015" /> Official police victim statistics put Chinese people in a group that includes other ethnicities, making it difficult to understand the extent of the crimes against the Chinese community.<ref name="Thomas-2015" />
Americas
Canada
In the 1850s, sizable numbers of Chinese immigrants came to British Columbia during the gold rush; the region was known to them as Gold Mountain. Starting in 1858, Chinese coolies were brought to Canada to work in the mines and on the Canadian Pacific Railway. However, they were denied by law the rights of citizenship, including the right to vote, and in the 1880s, "head taxes" were implemented to curtail immigration from China. In 1907, a riot in Vancouver targeted Chinese and Japanese-owned businesses. In 1923, the federal government banned Chinese immigration outright,<ref name="Crean" />Template:Rp passing the Chinese Immigration Act, commonly known as the Exclusion Act, prohibiting further Chinese immigration except under "special circumstances". The Exclusion Act was repealed in 1947, the same year in which Chinese Canadians were given the right to vote. Restrictions would continue to exist on immigration from Asia until 1967 when all racial restrictions on immigration to Canada were repealed, and Canada adopted the current points-based immigration system. On June 22, 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology and compensation only for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CA$20,000 in compensation.<ref>PM apologizes in House of Commons for head tax Template:Webarchive</ref>
Mexico
Template:See also Anti-Chinese sentiment was first recorded in Mexico in 1880s. Similar to most Western countries at the time, Chinese immigration and its large business involvement have always been a fear for native Mexicans. Violence against Chinese occurred such as in Sonora, Baja California and Coahuila, the most notable was the Torreón massacre.<ref>An anti-Chinese mob in Mexico Template:Webarchive. New York Times.</ref>
Peru
Peru was a popular destination for Chinese slaves in the 19th century, as part of the wider blackbirding phenomenon, due to the need in Peru for a military and laborer workforce. However, relations between Chinese workers and Peruvian owners have been tense, due to the mistreatment of Chinese laborers and anti-Chinese discrimination in Peru.<ref name="Justina-Hwang" />
Due to the Chinese support for Chile throughout the War of the Pacific, relations between Peruvians and Chinese became increasingly tenser in the aftermath. After the war, armed indigenous peasants sacked and occupied haciendas of landed elite criollo "collaborationists" in the central Sierra – the majority of them were of ethnic Chinese, while indigenous and mestizo Peruvians murdered Chinese shopkeepers in Lima; in response to Chinese coolies revolted and even joined the Chilean Army.<ref>Taylor, Lewis. Indigenous Peasant Rebellions in Peru during the 1880s</ref><ref name="bonilla">Bonilla, Heraclio. 1978. The National and Colonial Problem in Peru. Past and Present</ref> Even in the 20th century, the memory of Chinese support for Chile was so deep that Manuel A. Odría, once dictator of Peru, issued a ban against Chinese immigration as a punishment for their betrayal.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
United States
Starting with the California gold rush in the 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Employers believed that the Chinese were "reliable" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under harsh conditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The migrant workers encountered considerable prejudice in the United States, especially among the people who occupied the lower layers of white society, because Chinese "coolies" were used as scapegoats for depressed wage levels by politicians and labor leaders.<ref>See, e.g., "Our Misery and Despair": Kearney Blasts Chinese Immigration Template:Webarchive. Posted on History Matters: The U.S. Survey course on the web. Posted by Dennis Kearney, President, and H.L Knight, Secretary.</ref> Cases of physical assaults on the Chinese include the Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871. The 1909 murder of Elsie Sigel in New York, for which a Chinese person was suspected, was blamed on the Chinese in general and it immediately led to physical violence against them. "The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The emerging American trade unions, under such leaders as Samuel Gompers, also took an outspoken anti-Chinese position,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> regarding Chinese laborers as competitors to white laborers. Only with the emergence of the international trade union, IWW, did trade unionists start to accept Chinese workers as part of the American working class.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the 1870s and 1880s, various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China,<ref name="yeefow" /> although the laws were later repealed by the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. In particular, even in his lone dissent against Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), then-Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote of the Chinese as: "a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In April 2008, CNN's Jack Cafferty remarked: "We continue to import their junk with the lead paint on them and the poisoned pet food [...] So I think our relationship with China has certainly changed. I think they're basically the same bunch of goons and thugs they've been for the last 50 years." At least 1,500 Chinese Americans protested outside CNN's Hollywood offices in response while a similar protest took place at CNN headquarters in Atlanta.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Chris-Berdik-2008">Template:Cite web</ref>
Africa
South Africa
While the date of the first Chinese arrivals to Africa is contested, evidence from the Cape of Good Hope's refreshment station, in modern-day South Africa, indicates that Chinese convicts and slaves of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) arrived in the early 1650s. The Cape was used by the VOC as a penal settlement for criminals and exiles from the East Indies, including men from China. They were not incarcerated but instead put to work and were designated as "free blacks" after the terms of their incarceration had ended. The local Dutch and other white settlers were dispelled with the growth of early Chinese settlement and regulated them to a segregated neighborhood and burial ground. White settlers also introduced legislation to curb the activities of Chinese businesses out of fear that they would harm white traders. They also could not own land or real estate, had to pay fees to own a business, and had no rights as citizens.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The importation to work in South African mines in the early 20th Century also stoked Anti-Chinese sentiment in the country. 60,000 Chinese laborers were brought to work in the Witwatersrand gold mines in South Africa between 1904 and 1910 in order to solve a native-labor shortage after the Boer war as the result of African laborer's resistance to returning to the mines where wages had been slashed and working conditions remained oppressive and because white unskilled labor was deemed too costly. Poor Afrikaners, as white unemployment remained high, blamed the Chinese workers and mine owners for keeping them poor and taking jobs away from them. Others against Chinese migration and work in the mines, argued that Asian migrants would eventually settle and become involved in trade, displacing white traders. The increasing opposition led to the phasing out of Chinese workers between 1907 and 1910.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Under South African apartheid, Chinese residents were classified as "Coloured," and were subject to apartheid legislation such as the Group Areas Act 41 of 1950, the Immigrants Regulation Amendment Act 43 of 1953, the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act 55 of 1949, the Immorality Amendment Acts of 1951 and 1957, and the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act 49 of 1953. They were unable to vote until 1994, and needed permits to acquire or occupy property in white areas until 1985. Until the 1970s, Chinese South Africans were unable to own property, forcing them to rent from landlords and neighbors, which put them in a precarious position and made them vulnerable to exploitation, eviction, and prosecution.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
During the COVID-19 pandemic, anti-Chinese graffiti proliferated in South Africa which was fueled by the use of names like "China Virus," "Wuhan Virus," "Chinese flue," "Asian flue," and "Kung flue" to refer to the virus and the misinformation and conspiracy theories that circulated regarding the origins of COVID-19.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Anti-Han sentiment
Template:Main Template:See also Anti-Han sentiment refers to fear or dislike of ethnic Han people. It includes hostility towards Han Taiwanese as well as mainland Han Chinese.<ref name="Global Taiwan Institute">Template:Cite web</ref> Given that Han people make up the overwhelming majority of China's population, the anti-Han sentiment is closely related to the anti-Chinese sentiment.
Historical acts of Sinophobic violence
List of non-Chinese "sinophobia-led" acts of violence against ethnic Chinese:
Australia
Canada
Mexico
Mongolia
- Mongol conquest of China
- Deportation of Chinese people to China in the 1960's
- Attacks against Chinese by the Tsagaan Khas
Indonesia
- 1740 Batavia massacre
- 1918 Kudus riot
- Mergosono massacre
- Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66
- Template:Ill
- Template:Ill
- Template:Ill
- Banjarmasin riot of May 1997
- May 1998 riots of Indonesia
- November 2016 Jakarta protests
Malaysia
Japan
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By Koreans
- Wanpaoshan Incident, on July 1, 1931
United States
- Chinese massacre of 1871
- Rock Springs massacre
- Issaquah riot of 1885
- 1885 Pierce City lynching
- Tacoma riot of 1885
- Seattle riot of 1886
- Hells Canyon Massacre
- Anti-Chinese violence in California
- Denver Riot of 1880
- Killing of Vincent Chin
Vietnam
- 1782 Saigon massacre<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Derogatory terms
There are a variety of derogatory terms for Chinese people. Many of these terms are racist.
In English
- Chinaman – the term Chinaman is noted as offensive by modern dictionaries, dictionaries of slurs and euphemisms, and guidelines for racial harassment.
- Ching chong – Used to mock people of Chinese descent and the Chinese language, or other East and Southeast Asian-looking people in general.
- Ching chang chong – same usage as 'ching chong'.
- Chink – a racial slur referring to a person of Chinese ethnicity, but could be directed towards anyone of East and Southeast Asian descent in general.
- Chinky – the name "Chinky" is the adjectival form of Chink and, like Chink, is an ethnic slur for Chinese occasionally directed towards other East and Southeast Asian people.
- Chonky – refers to a person of Chinese heritage with white attributes whether being a personality aspect or physical aspect.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Coolie – means laborer in reference to Chinese manual workers in the 19th and early 20th century.
- Slope – used to mock people of Chinese descent and the sloping shape of their skull, or other East Asians. Used commonly during the Vietnam War.
- Panface – used to mock the flat facial features of the Chinese and other people of East and Southeast Asian descent.
- Lingling – used to call someone of Chinese descent in the West.
In Filipino
- Intsik (Cebuan: Insik) is used to refer to refer people of Chinese ancestry including Chinese Filipinos. (The standard term is Tsino, derived from the Spanish chino, with the colloquial Tsinoy referring specifically to Chinese Filipinos.) The originally neutral term recently gained negative connotation with the increasing preference of Chinese Filipinos not to be referred to as Intsik. The term originally came from in chiek, a Hokkien term referring to one's uncle. The term has variations, which may be more offensive in tone such as Intsik baho and may used in a derogatory phrase, Intsik baho tulo-laway ("Smelly old Chinaman with drooling saliva").<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Tsekwa (sometimes spelled chekwa) – is a slang term used by the Filipinos to refer to Chinese people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In French
- Chinetoque (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Asian people, especially of those from China and Vietnam.
In Indonesian
- Chitato – (China Tanpa Toko) – literally "Chinese people don't have shops" referring to ridicule for Indonesian Chinese descent who do not own shops.
- Aseng – A play on the word "asing" which means "foreigner" is used by local natives in Indonesia for Chinese descent.
- Panlok (Panda lokal/local panda) – derogatory term referring to Chinese female or female who look like Chinese, particularly prostitutes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In Japanese
- Template:Nihongo – literally "earth people", referring either neutrally to local folk or derogatorily to indigenous peoples and savages, used towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century by Japanese colonists, to imply the backwardsness of Chinese people.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Template:Nihongo – Japanese reading of the Chinese character compound "Template:Lang" (Zhina in Mandarin Chinese), originally a Chinese transcription of an Indic name for China that entered East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. This toponym quickly became a racial marker with the rise of Japanese imperialism,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and it is still considered derogatory, as is 'shina-jin'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The slur is also extended toward left-wing activists by right-wing people.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Chankoro – derogatory term originating from a corruption of the Taiwanese Hokkien pronunciation of 清國奴 Chheng-kok-lô͘, used to refer to any "Chinaman", with a meaning of "Qing dynasty's slave".
In Korean
- Template:Ill (Template:Ko-hhrm) – the Korean pronunciation of Template:Lang (Template:Lang), literally "shopkeeper", originally referring to owners of Chinese restaurants and stores;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
- Jjangkkolla (Template:Ko-hhrm) – this term has originated from Japanese term Template:Nihongo. Later, it became a derogatory term that indicates people in China.<ref>Template:In lang Jjangkkolla – Naver encyclopedia</ref>
- Orangkae (Template:Ko-hhrm) – literally "Barbarian", derogatory term used against Chinese, Mongolian and Manchus.
- Template:Interlanguage link (Template:Ko-hhrm) – Originally a demeaning word for Jurchen, meaning something similar to 'barbarian'. The Jurchens invaded Joseon in 1636 and caused long-term hatred. A Jurchen group later made the Qing dynasty, causing some Koreans to generalize the word to China as a whole.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Ttaenom (Template:Ko-hhrm) – literally "dirt bastard", referring to the perceived "dirtiness" of Chinese people, who some believe do not wash themselves. It was originally Dwoenom but changed over time to Ddaenom.
In Mongolian
- Hujaa (Template:Langx) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
- Jungaa – a derogatory term for Chinese people referring to the Chinese language.
In Portuguese
- Pastel de flango (Chicken pastry) - it is a derogatory term ridiculing Chinese pronunciation of Portuguese language (changing R by L). This derogatory term is sometimes used in Brazil to refer to Chinese people.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In Russian
- Kitayoza (Template:Langx kitayóza) (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
- Uzkoglazy (Template:Langx uzkoglázy) (m) – generic derogatory term referring to Chinese people (Template:Lit).
In Spanish
- Chino cochino – (coe-chee-noe, N.A. "cochini", SPAN "cochino", literally meaning "pig") is an outdated derogatory term meaning dirty Chinese. Cochina is the feminine form of the word.
In Italian
- Muso giallo – "yellow muzzle/yellow face", this term was used in an early 20th century play regarding Italian miners. Although it was not directed toward a Chinese person, but rather from one Italian to another, its existence nevertheless attested to the perceived 'otherness' of Chinese laborers within Italy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The slur is used as an equivalent of "gook" or "zipperhead" in Italian dubs of English films.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In Thai
- Chek/Jek (Template:Langx) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
In Vietnamese
- Tàu – literally "boat". It is used to refer to Chinese people in general, and can be construed as derogatory but very rarely does. This usage is derived from the fact that many Chinese refugees came to Vietnam in boats during the Qing dynasty.<ref name="Nguyễn-2019">Template:Cite web</ref>
- Khựa – (meaning dirty) derogatory term for Chinese people and combination of two words above is called Tàu Khựa, which is a common word.<ref name="Nguyễn-2019" />
- Chệc – (ethnic slur, derogatory) Chink<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- ChệchTemplate:NoteTag – (ethnic slur, derogatory) Chink, seldom used in actual spoken Vietnamese, but occurs in some translations as an equivalent of English Chink.
Sinophobia during the COVID-19 pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic, in which the virus was first detected in Wuhan, has caused prejudice and racism against people of Chinese ancestry; some people stated that Chinese people deserve to contract it.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> The prevalence of this sentiment led to multiple acts of severe violence against people of Chinese ancestry, and it also led to multiple acts of violence against those who were wrongly supposed to have been of Chinese ancestry.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the victims of the violence and the verbal abuse ranged from toddlers to the elderly,<ref name=":1" /> school children and their parents.<ref name=":2" /> They were not just mainland Chinese: they were also Taiwanese, Hong Kongers, members of the Chinese diaspora and other Asians who are either mistaken for or associated with them.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />
Several citizens across the globe also demanded a ban on Chinese people from their countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Racist abuse and assaults against Asian groups have also increased in both the UK and the US.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Former U.S. President Donald Trump also repeatedly called the coronavirus the 'Chinese virus';<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> however, he denied the fact that the term had a racist connotation.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref>
Notes
References
Further reading
- Aarim-Heriot, Najia (2003). Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848–82. University of Illinois Press.
- Ang, Sylvia, and Val Colic-Peisker. "Sinophobia in the Asian century: race, nation and Othering in Australia and Singapore." Ethnic and racial studies 45.4 (2022): 718–737. online
- Billé, Franck. Sinophobia : anxiety, violence, and the making of Mongolian identity (2015) online
- Chua, Amy. World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (Random House Digital, 2004) online
- Ferrall, Charles; Millar, Paul; Smith, Keren. (eds.) (2005). East by South: China in the Australasian imagination. Victoria University Press.
- Hong, Jane H. Opening the Gates to Asia: A Transpacific History of How America Repealed Asian Exclusion (University of North Carolina Press, 2019) online review
- Jain, Shree, and Sukalpa Chakrabarti. "The Dualistic Trends of Sinophobia and Sinophilia: Impact on Foreign Policy Towards China." China Report 59.1 (2023): 95–118. doi.org/10.1177/00094455231155212
- Lew-Williams, Beth. The Chinese Must Go: Violence, Exclusion, and the Making of the Alien in America (Harvard UP, 2018)
- Lovell, Julia. The Great Wall: China against the world, 1000 bc–ad 2000 (Grove/Atlantic, 2007). online
- Lovell, Julia. Maoism: A Global History (2019), a comprehensive scholarly history excerpt
- Lovell, Julia. "The Uses of Foreigners in Mao-Era China: 'Techniques of Hospitality' and International Image-Building in the People's Republic, 1949–1976." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (2015): 135–158. online
- McClain, Charles J. (1996). In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America. University of California Press.
- Mungello, David E. (2009). The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Ngai, Mae. The Chinese Question: The Gold Rushes and Global Politics (2021), Mid 19c in California, Australia, and South Africa
- Ratuva, Steven. "The Politics of Imagery: Understanding the Historical Genesis of Sinophobia in Pacific Geopolitics." East Asia 39.1 (2022): 13–28. online
- Renshaw, Daniel. "Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the-century Britain." Patterns of Prejudice 50.1 (2016): 38–60. around year 1900. online
- Schumann, Sandy, and Ysanne Moore. "The COVID-19 outbreak as a trigger event for sinophobic hate crimes in the United Kingdom." British Journal of Criminology 63.2 (2023): 367–383. online
- Template:Cite book Book written by an Observer/UK journalist, who was in Kuala Lumpur at the time.
- Tsolidis, Georgina. "Historical Narratives of Sinophobia–Are these echoed in contemporary Australian debates about Chineseness?." Journal of Citizenship and Globalisation Studies 2.1 (2018): 39–48. online
- Template:Cite book Paperback reprint (2015) Template:ISBN.
- Ward, W. Peter (2002). White Canada Forever: Popular Attitudes and Public Policy Toward Orientals in British Columbia. McGill-Queen's Press. 3rd edition.
- Witchard, Anne. England's Yellow Peril: Sinophobia and the Great War (2014) excerpt
External links
Template:Clear Template:Anti-national sentiment Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment Template:Overseas Chinese