Ashura

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Template:Short description Template:About Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox holiday Template:Musa Template:Husayn

Ashura (Template:Langx, Template:Transliteration Template:IPA) is a day of commemoration in Islam. It occurs annually on the tenth of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. For Sunni Muslims, Ashura marks the parting of the Red Sea by Moses and the salvation of the Israelites. Also on this day, it is believed that Noah disembarked from the Ark, God forgave Adam, and Joseph was released from prison, among various other auspicious events having occurred on Ashura according to Sunni tradition. Ashura is celebrated in Sunni Islam through supererogatory fasting and other acceptable expressions of joy. In some Sunni communities, the annual Ashura festivities include carnivals, bonfires, and special dishes, even though some Sunni scholars have criticized such practices.

By contrast, for Shia Muslims, Ashura is a day of mourning as they annually commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam. Husayn refused on moral grounds to pledge his allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (Template:Reign) and was subsequently killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, by the Umayyad army in the Battle of Karbala on Ashura 61 AH (680 CE). Among Shia Muslims, mourning for Husayn is seen as an act of protest against oppression, a spiritual struggle for God, and a means of seeking Husayn’s intercession in the afterlife. Ashura is observed through mourning gatherings, processions, and dramatic reenactments. In such ceremonies, Shia mourners strike their chests to share in the pain of Husayn. Extreme self-flagellation, often involving self-inflicted bloodshed, remains controversial among the Shia, condemned by many Shia clerics, and outlawed in some Shia communities. Ashura has sometimes been an occasion for sectarian violence, particularly against the Shia minority.

Etymology

Template:Transliteration is an Aramaic word meaning 'tenth'.Template:Sfn It may have also been derived from the Syriac words Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn It shares the same root as the Hebrew word 'āsōr.Template:Sfn In Arabic, Ashura refers to the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar, a month in which fighting has been forbidden since before the advent of Islam.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Likely origins

Fasting on Ashura was likely a Jewish practice adopted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his arrival in the city of Medina in 622 CE,Template:Sfn perhaps signifying Muhammad's sense of a shared prophetic mission with Moses.Template:Sfn Although it remained optional, fasting on Ashura ceased to be a religious obligation after about a year when the relations with the Medinese Jews deteriorated.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn This transition is often associated with verses 2:183–5 of the Quran, the central religious text in Islam, which explicitly designate Ramadan as the month of fasting.Template:Sfn It also seems improbable that Ashura initially coincided with the tenth of Muharram.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Instead, Ashura was probably observed at first on the tenth of the first Jewish month of Tishrei, known as Yom Kippur (Template:Lit).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The association of Ashura with the tenth of Muharram thus happened later, some time after the Jewish and Muslim calendars diverged.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In turn, the calendars began to diverge when Muhammad forbade Jewish-type calendar adjustments in connection with verse 9:37 of the Quran.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In Sunni Islam

A similar origin story for Ashura appears in some Sunni traditions.Template:Sfn Alternatively, there are traditions in canonical Sunni collections that describe fasting on Ashura as a pre-Islamic practice among the Quraysh tribe, in which Muhammad also partook while he was in Mecca.Template:Sfn Some early Sunni traditions, many classified as unreliable,Template:Sfn possibly invented by the Umayyads (Template:Reign),Template:Sfn link Ashura to various auspicious events: On this day, Moses parted the Red Sea,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Noah disembarked from the Ark,Template:Sfn God forgave Adam, Joseph was released from prison, Jesus, Abraham, and Adam were born, Muhammad was conceived,Template:Sfn and Jonah was freed from the fish that had swallowed him.Template:Sfn Fasting on the ninth of Muharram, known as Tasu'a, was a later addition, probably to distinguish Muslims from Jews.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Customs

Template:See also In Sunni Islam, ninth and tenth of Muharram are days for voluntary fasting, strongly encouraged by Sunni jurists.Template:Sfn While not endorsed by all Sunni scholars,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ashura is further viewed as a day of thanksgiving (Template:Transliteration) to God, a joyous occasion, celebrated through pious acts and acceptable expressions of delight.Template:Sfn Ashura is thus an important festival for many Sunnis, in contrast to the Shia, who mourn on this day the slaughter of Muhammad's grandson, Husayn ibn Ali, and his small retinue in the Battle of Karbala in 680.Template:Sfn Such Sunni festivities either developed in response to Shia customs on Ashura or with the influence of pre-Islamic traditions.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In line with the former view, under the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Template:Reign), Ashura was celebrated as a festive public holiday to counter the commemoration of Husayn.Template:Sfn The Abbasid caliph al-Qadir (Template:Reign) did so too in Baghdad, Iraq.Template:Sfn Another instance is the reenactment by a Sunni mob of the Battle of the Camel (656) against Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia imam, in the Buyid-era Baghdad on Ashura 973.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Whatever the case is for their origins, such festivities were firmly established by the time of the Sunni jurist Ibn Taymiyya (Template:Died in), to whom a questioner wrote, observing that people are joyful on Ashura; they bathe, adorn themselves, shake hands with each other, and cook grains.Template:Sfn In the Maghreb, for instance, Ashura is celebrated today through fasting, almsgiving, honoring the dead, special dishes, jumping over bonfires, and carnivals.Template:Sfn Nevertheless, particularly in South Asia, some Sunnis participated in the Shia rituals on Ashura,Template:Sfn at least until modern times.Template:Sfn Sufis also commonly commemorated the death of Husayn, more so in the earlier times, despite its variance with the views of the Sunni elite.Template:Sfn For Sufis, rather than a tragedy, Ashura celebrates the eternal life of Husayn and his companions, who annihilated themselves in the Divine with their martyrdom.Template:Sfn

Ibn Taymiyya

In response to an inquiry about their legal basis, Ibn Taymiyya rejects both mourning and celebrating on Ashura because, he contends, neither was practiced by Muhammad. Ibn Taymiyya does, however, encourage fasting on Ashura to emulate Muhammad. The Islamicist M. Katz questions the judgment of Ibn Taymiyya for not taking into account the Sunni reports that Muhammad fasted to celebrate Ashura, suggesting that Ibn Taymiyya has stripped fasting of its higher meaning.Template:Sfn

In Shia Islam

Battle of Karbala

Template:Main In Shia Islam, Ashura commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammad's grandson and the third Shia imam.Template:Sfn Husayn was killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, on 10 Muharram 61 AH (10 October 680) in the Battle of Karbala against the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (Template:Reign), having been surrounded for some days and deprived of the drinking water of the nearby Euphrates river. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the capital Damascus in Syria. The battle followed failed negotiations and Husayn's refusal to pledge his allegiance to Yazid, who is often portrayed by Muslim historians as impious and immoral.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The fight took place in the desert land of Karbala, en route to the nearby Kufa, whose residents had invited Husayn to lead them against Yazid.Template:Sfn

Significance

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File:Tehran Ashura Demonstration, 11 December 1978 (12).jpg
Ashura demonstrations against the Pahlavids in Iran, 1978

Ashura is a day of mourning and grief for Shia Muslims.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It was observed as such by their imams,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn who also frequently encouraged the Shia community to follow suit.Template:Sfn For instance, a tradition attributed to the Shia imam Ali al-Rida (Template:Died in) describes Ashura as a day of grieving and somber resignation from material affairs.Template:Sfn Shia tradition also dismisses as fabricated those Sunni hadiths that mark Ashura as a joyful occasion.Template:Sfn Indeed, traditions attributed to the Shia imams forbid fasting on this day,Template:Sfn and promise eternal punishment for those who celebrate Ashura as a day of blessing.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In Shia Islam, Karbala symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn the pinnacle of self-sacrifice,Template:Sfn and the ultimate sabotage of Muhammad's prophetic mission.Template:Sfn Historically, the event served to crystallize the Shia community into a distinct sect and remains an integral part of their religious identity to date.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the one hand, mourners share in the pain of Husayn and hope to benefit from his intercession on the Day of Judgement.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the other, they view mourning for Husayn as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God (Template:Transliteration), and as such an act of worship.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Rituals

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File:Mourning of Muharram in cities and villages of Iran-342 16 (136).jpg
Shia passion play (Template:Transliteration) in Iran

In addition to pilgrimage to the shrine of Husayn, located in Karbala, Iraq,Template:Sfn Shia Muslims annually commemorate the events of Karbala throughout the months of Muharram and Safar.Template:Sfn Most rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with processions in major Shia cities.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The main component of ritual ceremonies (Template:Transliteration, Template:Singular Template:Transliteration) is the narration of the stories of Karbala (Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration),Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and the recitation of elegies and dirges (Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn all intended to raise the sympathy of audience and move them to tears.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn A Template:Transliteration often takes place in a dedicated building or structure, known variously as Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, or Template:Transliteration.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Another component of mourning gatherings is the self-flagellation of participants to the rhythm of Karbala elegies.Template:Sfn Rooted in ancient Arab practices,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn mild forms of self-flagellation, that is, striking one's face and chest in grief (Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration),Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn are common today in Shia communities.Template:Sfn But there are also extreme forms of self-flagellation (Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration), in which the participants strike themselves, usually on the forehead or back, with knives, swords, or chains to which razor blades are attached.Template:Sfn Banned in Iran and the Shia communities of Lebanon since the mid-90s,Template:Sfn instrumental self-flagellation has been condemned by many Shia clerics,Template:Sfn and it remains an often controversial practice among the Shia.Template:Sfn

Another mourning ritual is the dramatic reenactment of Karbala narratives (Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration), practiced today in Iran, in the western Gulf shore, and in Lebanon.Template:Sfn On Ashura, always the "martyrdom of Husayn" is reenacted in such performances.Template:Sfn In Karbala, an annual performance on Ashura reenacts the burning of Husayn's tents after the battle by the Umayyads and the captivity of the women and children.Template:Sfn During Muharram, especially on Ashura,Template:Sfn processions of mourners (Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration) march the streets,Template:Sfn chanting dirges and elegies,Template:Sfn sometimes accompanied by self-flagellation.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn For instance, in the Template:Transliteration march in Karbala, male and then female mourners walk barefoot to the shrine of Husayn in the afternoon of Ashura.Template:Sfn Depending on the region, processions carry symbolic objects, such as Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn Template:Transliteration (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn Template:Transliteration,Template:Sfn and tadjah.Template:Sfn Template:Transliteration represents the ensign of Husayn in Karbala,Template:Sfn while the last three objects symbolize his bier or tomb.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Terrorist attacks during Ashura

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Ashura has sometimes been an occasion for Sunni violence against Shia Muslims, who are often a minority in Muslim communities.Template:Sfn In India, for instance, the Sunni activist Ahmad Barelvi (Template:Died in) preached against Ashura rituals and, probably with some exaggeration, boasted of destroying thousands of imambargahs, which are buildings dedicated to ritual mourning.Template:Sfn Some terrorist attacks against Ashura services are listed below.

In the Gregorian calendar

Ashura, tenth of Muharram in the Islamic calendar, corresponds to a different day every year in the Gregorian calendar.<ref name="vangent">Template:Cite web</ref>

Islamic calendar 1447 1448 1449
Gregorian calendar 5 July 2025<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> 25 June 2026<ref name=":0" /> 15 June 2027<ref name=":0" />

See also

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Footnotes

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References

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Further reading

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