Bambi

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Template:Short description Template:About Template:Pp-move Template:Use American English Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox film Bambi is a 1942 American coming-of-age drama film<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by RKO Radio Pictures. Loosely based on Felix Salten's 1923 novel Bambi, a Life in the Woods, the animated film was supervised by David D. Hand, and was directed by a team of sequence directors, including James Algar, Bill Roberts, Norman Wright, Sam Armstrong, Paul Satterfield, and Graham Heid.

The main characters are Bambi, a white-tailed deer; his parents (the Great Prince of the forest and his unnamed mother); his friends Thumper (a pink-nosed cottontail rabbit); and Flower (a skunk); and his childhood friend and future mate, Faline. In the original book, Bambi was a roe deer, a species native to Europe; but Disney decided to base the character on a mule deer from Arrowhead, California.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Illustrator Maurice "Jake" Day convinced Disney that the mule deer had large "mule-like" ears and were more common to western North America; but that the white-tail deer was more recognized throughout the United States.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The film received three Academy Award nominations: Best Sound (Sam Slyfield), Best Song (for "Love Is a Song" sung by Donald Novis) and Original Music Score.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In June 2008, the American Film Institute presented a list of its "10 Top 10"—the best ten films in each of ten classic American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Bambi attained third in animation.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In December 2011, the film was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically and aesthetically significant".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A follow-up, Bambi II, premiered in theaters in Argentina on January 26, 2006, before being released as a direct-to-video title in the United States on February 7, 2006. In January 2020, it was announced that a photorealistic computer-animated remake was in development.<ref name="Remake" />

Plot

In a Maine forest, a doe gives birth to a male fawn named Bambi, who will one day take over the position of Great Prince of the Forest, who guards the woodland creatures. Bambi grows up very attached to his mother, with whom he spends most of his time. The fawn is befriended by an eager, energetic male rabbit named Thumper, who helps to teach him to walk and speak, a young male skunk he mistakenly calls "Flower" (who is so flattered, he keeps the name) and a female fawn named Faline. Curious and inquisitive, Bambi frequently asks about the world around him and is cautioned about the dangers of life as a forest creature by his loving mother.

One day out in a meadow, Bambi briefly sees the Great Prince, the oldest and most experienced stag. As the Great Prince wanders uphill, he discovers the human hunter, named "Man" by all the animals, is coming and rushes down to the meadow to get everyone to safety. Bambi is briefly separated from his mother during that time but is escorted to her by the Great Prince as the three of them make it back in the forest just as Man fires his gun.

During Bambi's first winter, he and Thumper play in the snow while Flower hibernates. One day his mother takes him to find food when Man shows up again. As they run off, his mother is shot and killed by the hunter, leaving the little fawn mournful and alone. Taking pity on the abandoned fawn, the Great Prince leads Bambi home as he reveals to him that he is his father.

The following year, Bambi has matured into a young buck, and his childhood friends have also entered young adulthood. They are warned about becoming "twitterpated" by Friend Owl and that they will eventually fall in love, but the trio views the concept of romance with scorn. Thumper and Flower soon encounter their beautiful romantic counterparts and abandon their former thoughts on love. Bambi himself encounters Faline as a beautiful doe. Their courtship is quickly interrupted by a belligerent older stag named Ronno, who attempts to force Faline away from Bambi. Bambi successfully manages to defeat Ronno in battle and earn the rights to the doe's affections.

One day, Bambi is awakened by the smell of smoke; he follows it and discovers it leads to a hunter camp. His father warns Bambi that Man has returned with more hunters. Bambi is separated from Faline in the turmoil, but finds her cornered by Man's vicious hunting dogs, which he manages to ward off. Bambi escapes them and is shot by Man, but survives. Meanwhile, at the "Man's" camp, their campfire suddenly spreads into the forest, resulting in a wildfire from which the forest residents flee in fear. Bambi, his father, Faline, and the forest animals manage to reach shelter on a riverbank.

The following spring, Faline gives birth to twins under Bambi's watchful eye as the new Great Prince of the Forest.

Voice cast

The voice cast was all uncredited, as was the practice at the time for many animated films.

File:Bambi 1942 trailer- 00 min 29 s.png
Adolescent Bambi, Thumper, and Flower, as shown in the film's trailer

Production

Development

In 1933, Sidney Franklin purchased the rights to Felix Salten's novel Bambi, a Life in the Woods (1923) to produce a live-action film for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, but soon realized that it would be too difficult to achieve.<ref name="10FactsFromBambi" />Template:Sfn Joseph M. Schenck of United Artists suggested he make an animated version in alliance with Walt Disney, who was contemplating the idea of his first full-length feature at the time, with Bambi as one of the possible choices.Template:Sfn Later that year, Franklin approached him with the idea, but Disney eventually refused, feeling that his animation studio was unprepared for the technical difficulties that Bambi would have presented.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Franklin sold the film rights to Walt Disney in April 1937.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999">Barrier, Michael, 1999, Hollywood Cartoons, Oxford University Press, United Kingdom</ref> Disney began work on crafting an animated adaptation immediately, intending it to be the company's second feature-length animated film and their first to be based on a specific, recent work.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999"/> However, the original novel was written for an adult audience, and was considered too "grim" and "somber" for a regular light-hearted Disney film.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999"/> The artists also discovered that it would be challenging to animate deer realistically.<ref name="The Making of Bambi">The Making of Bambi: A Prince is Born, Bambi Blu-Ray, 2011</ref> These difficulties resulted in Disney putting production on hold while the studio worked on several other projects, and eventually Pinocchio became the studio's second film.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999"/> In 1938, Disney assigned Perce Pearce and Carl Fallberg to work on the film's storyboards, but attention was soon drawn away as the studio began working on Fantasia.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999"/> Finally, on August 17, 1939, production on Bambi began in earnest, but progressed slowly owing to changes in the studio personnel, location, and methodology of handling animation at the time.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999"/>

Writing

There were many interpretations of the story. As writer and animator Mel Shaw recalled: Template:Cquote

Originally the film was intended to have six individual bunny characters, similar to the dwarfs in Snow White. However Perce Pearce suggested that they could instead have five generic rabbits and one rabbit with a different color than the rest, with one tooth, would have a very distinct personality.<ref name="Inside Walt">Inside Walt's Story Meetings, Bambi 2011 Blu-ray</ref> This character later became known as Thumper. There originally was a brief shot in the scene where Bambi's mother dies after jumping over a log and getting shot by a man. Larry Morey, however, felt the scene was too dramatic, and that it was emotional enough to justify having her death occur off screen.<ref name="The Making of Bambi" /><ref name="Inside Walt" /> Walt Disney was also eager to show the man burned to death by his fire that he inadvertently started, but this was discarded when it was decided not to show the man at all.<ref name="The Making of Bambi" />

There was a scene involving two autumn leaves conversing like an old married couple before parting ways and falling to the ground, but Disney found that talking flora did not work in the context of the film, and instead a visual metaphor of two realistic leaves falling to the ground was used instead.<ref name="Inside Walt"/> Disney and his story team also developed the characters consisting of a squirrel and a chipmunk that were to be a comic duo reminiscent of Laurel and Hardy. However, after years of experimentation, Walt felt that the story should focus on the three principal characters: Bambi, Thumper and Flower.<ref name="Inside Walt"/> The squirrel and chipmunk make only brief appearances in the final film. The writing was completed in July 1940, by which time the film's budget had increased to $858,000,Template:Sfn with the final budget reaching $2 million.<ref name="LATimes89">Template:Cite web</ref>

Animation

Although the animators had animated deer in Snow White, they were animated, in the words of Eric Larson, "like big flour sacks".<ref name="The Making of Bambi"/> Disney wanted the animals in Bambi to be more realistic and expressive than those in Snow White. He had Rico LeBrun, a painter of animals, come and lecture to the animators on the structure and movement of animals.<ref name="thomas">Template:Cite book</ref> The animators visited the Los Angeles Zoo and Disney set up a small zoo at the studio with animals such as rabbits, ducks, owls, and skunks, and a pair of fawns named Bambi and Faline so that the artists could see first-hand the movement of these animals.<ref name="Inside Walt"/><ref name="thomas"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> LeBrun's sketches depicted realistic animals, but as characters they lacked personality. Marc Davis created the final design of Bambi by incorporating LeBrun's realistic study of deer anatomy but exaggerating the character's face by making his proportions baby-like (short snout, big eyes, etc.).<ref name="The Making of Bambi"/> Although there were no humans in Bambi, live-action footage of humans was used for one scene: actress Jane Randolph and Ice Capades star Donna Atwood acted as live-action references for the scene where Bambi and Thumper are on the icy pond.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The animators learned a lot about animals during the film's production, giving them a broader spectrum of animation styles to use in future projects.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The backgrounds for the film were inspired by the Eastern American woodlands. One of the earliest and best-known artists for the Disney studio, Maurice "Jake" Day, spent several weeks in the Vermont and Maine forests, sketching and photographing deer, fawns, and the surrounding wilderness areas.<ref>Maurice E. Day, Animator, 90; Drew Deer for Movie 'Bambi': Obituary in the New York Times, published May 19, 1983)</ref> However his first sketches were too "busy" as the eye did not know where to focus.<ref name="The Making of Bambi"/> Tyrus Wong, a Chinese animator, showed Day some of his impressionistic paintings of a forest. Day liked the paintings and appointed him art director of the film.<ref name="The Making of Bambi"/> Wong's backgrounds were revolutionary since they had more detail around the center and less around the edges, thus leading a viewer's eye to the characters.<ref name="Inside Walt"/> Due to World War II, which began in Europe in 1939, Pinocchio and Fantasia failed at the box office. Facing financial difficulty, Disney was forced to cut 12 minutes from the film before final animation to save production costs.<ref name="Barrier, Michael 1999" />

Music

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Release

Original theatrical run

File:Bambi (Original Theatrical Trailer) 1942.ogv
The film's 1942 theatrical trailer.

Bambi had its world premiere in London on August 9, 1942 at the New Gallery Cinema, the first Disney film to debut abroad.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn It was released in theaters in United States five days later, on August 13.Template:Sfn The film was released during World War II and did not perform as well as hoped.Template:Sfn Roy O. Disney sent a telegram to his brother Walt after the New York opening of the film that read: "Fell short of our holdover figure by $4,000. Just came from Music Hall. Unable to make any deal to stay third week ... Night business is our problem."<ref name="Walt's Masterworks: Bambi"/> The film earned RKO theatrical rentals of $1,270,000 in the United States and Canada in its initial release.<ref name="rko">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Disney lacked access to much of the European market during the war,<ref name="Walt's Masterworks: Bambi">Template:Cite web</ref> however, the film earned rentals of $1,685,000 internationally for an initial worldwide total of $2,955,000, Disney's third-highest, behind Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) with $7.8 million and Pinocchio (1940) with $3.2 million.<ref name="rko" />

Re-releases

The film was re-released to theatres in the United States in 1947, 1957, 1966, 1975, 1982 and 1988. In its first reissue in the United States in 1947, the film earned additional domestic rentals of $900,000 but did much better 10 years later, more than doubling the domestic rental total with a further $2.5 million<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> taking its total domestic rental earnings to $4.7 million. The film earned $14 million in domestic rentals from its reissues in 1966 and 1975 giving it a total domestic rental of $18,735,000,<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> which equates to a gross of around $40 million.<ref name="BoxOfficeMojo" /> In 1982, it grossed another $23 million in the United States and Canada and in 1988, a further $39 million, taking its total in the United States and Canada to $102 million,<ref name="BoxOfficeMojo" /> making it (at the time) the second highest-grossing animated movie of all-time after Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> With grosses from international reissues, the film has a worldwide gross of $267 million.<ref name="BoxOfficeMojo" /> On August 18, 2023, Bambi was re-released in cinemas across the UK only for one week as part of Disney's 100th anniversary.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Home media

Prior to BambiTemplate:'s initial release on home video on September 28, 1989, initial orders placed in the United States and Canada up to the end of August totaled 9.8 million units, the second largest number of orders for a video at the time, behind E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, with a wholesale value of $167 million.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Even in home video, it has seen multiple releases, including three VHS releases — in 1989 (Classics Version), 1997 (Masterpiece Collection Version), and 2005 (Platinum Edition version), one Betamax release in 1989 (Classics version), two Laserdisc releases in 1989 (Classics version) and 1997 (Masterpiece Collection version). In 2005, a digitally remastered and restored Platinum Edition DVD was released;<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> it went on moratorium on January 31, 2007.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Bambi was released as a Diamond Edition on March 1, 2011,<ref name="High Def Digest">Template:Cite news</ref> consisting of a Blu-ray and DVD combo pack. This release included multiple bonus features not previously included in Bambi home releases: a documentary entitled Inside Walt's Story Meetings – Enhanced Edition, two deleted scenes, a deleted song, an image gallery, and a game entitled Disney's Big Book of Knowledge: Bambi Edition.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> This release also marked the first use of "Disney Second Screen",<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> a feature which is accessed via a computer or iPad app download that syncs with the Blu-ray disc,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> allowing the viewer to follow along by interacting with animated flip-books, galleries and trivia while watching the movie.<ref name="High Def Digest" /> A UK version of Diamond Edition was released on February 7, 2011.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In honor of the film's 75th anniversary, Bambi was released as part of the Walt Disney Signature Collection on May 23, 2017 (digital) and June 6, 2017 (Blu-ray/DVD/digital combo pack).

Localization

On the initiative of Stephen Greymoming, professor of Native American studies and anthropology at the University of Montana,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> an Arapaho-language dubbing of the movie was produced in 1994, in collaboration with the Northern Plains Educational Foundation.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The final product was only a partial dubbing, as the spoken parts were dubbed in Arapaho, but all the songs were left in English.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref> The dubbed version of the movie premiered on November 3 the same year, and Disney later provided the Arapaho Nation with 2000 VHS tapes of the movie.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The dubbing was never issued again in any other forms, until it was uploaded on the streaming platform Disney+ in October 2022.<ref name="Oddo-2022">Template:Cite web</ref> Bambi was the first of three Disney movies to receive a dubbing in a Native American language.<ref name="Oddo-2022" /> The next such instance had to wait until 2016, when Pixar's Finding Nemo received a dubbing in Navajo,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and then Disney's Moana in Hawaiian two years later.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> While the first was also made available on Disney+,<ref name="Oddo-2022" /> the latter was only distributed for free in schools in Hawaii, and never received any home media release form.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Reception

Critical response

At the time of the film's release, Bambi received mixed reviews from the critics,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> mainly because of the lack of fantasy elements in the film and objection towards a dramatic story of animals and their struggle to survive in the woods and avoid the threat of humans.Template:Sfn The New York Times claimed that "In the search for perfection, Mr. Disney has come perilously close to tossing away his whole world of cartoon fantasy."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Manny Farber of The New Republic wrote that "Bambi is interesting because it's the first one that's been entirely unpleasant" and that "Mickey wouldn't be caught dead in this". Farber added that "In an attempt to ape the trumped-up realism of flesh and blood movies, he has given up fantasy, which was pretty much the magic element."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Even Disney's daughter Diane complained, saying that Bambi's mother did not need to die. When Walt claimed that he was only following the book, Diane protested, saying that he had taken other liberties before and that Walt Disney could do whatever he wanted.Template:Sfn

Into the 21st century, Bambi is viewed much more favorably. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 53 reviews with an average rating of Template:RT data. The website consensus reads: "Elegantly animated and deeply touching, Bambi is an enduring, endearing, and moving Disney classic."<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:RT data</ref> Template:MC film<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Critics Mick Martin and Marsha Porter call the film "the crowning achievement of Walt Disney's animation studio".<ref>Mick Martin,Marsha Porter DVD&Video Guide 2005.Ballantine 2004.Template:ISBN</ref> English film historian Leslie Halliwell wrote that Bambi was "one of Disney's most memorable and brilliant achievements with a great comic character in Thumper and a climactic forest fire sequence that is genuinely thrilling." He concluded that it was "a triumph of the animator's arts".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Accolades

Award Category Nominee(s) Result
Academy Awards<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Best Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture Frank Churchill and Edward H. Plumb Template:Nom
Best Original Song "Love Is a Song"
Music by Frank Churchill;
Lyrics by Larry Morey 		Template:Nom
Best Sound Recording C. O. Slyfield Template:Nom
Genesis Awards Feature Film – Classic Template:Won
Golden Globe Awards<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Special Achievement Award Walt Disney Template:Won
Hugo Awards<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Best Dramatic Presentation – Short Form Perce Pearce, Larry Morey and David D. Hand Template:Won
National Film Preservation Board<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> National Film Registry Template:Won
Online Film & Television Association Awards<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Hall of Fame – Motion Picture Template:Won
Satellite Awards<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Outstanding Youth DVD Template:Nom

In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "10 Top 10" – the best ten films in ten classic American film genres – after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Bambi was acknowledged as the third best film in the animation genre.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is also listed in the Top 25 Horror Movies of All Time by Time magazine. Bambi, Time states, "has a primal shock that still haunts oldsters who saw it 40, 50, 65 years ago."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

American Film Institute

Legacy

The off-screen villain "Man" has been placed No. 20 on AFI's List of Heroes and Villains.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Some critics have cited parallels between Frank Churchill's theme music for "Man" (which consisted of three simple notes) and John Williams's theme music in Jaws (which consists of two notes).<ref>Tylski, Alexandre. "A Study of Jaws' Incisive Overture" Template:Webarchive. Film Score Monthly. Retrieved July 4, 2012.</ref> Kathryn Schulz of The New Yorker stated that due to the film becoming far more prominent than the book, it "rendered [Felix Salten] virtually unknown."<ref name="Schulzbleak">Template:Cite magazine</ref> According to Schulz, the film also made the original novel, which was previously given prominent attention and discussed, "obscure".<ref name="Schulzbleak" /> Paul McCartney has credited the shooting death of Bambi's mother for his initial interest in animal rights.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Soon after the film's release, Walt Disney allowed his characters to appear in fire prevention public service campaigns. However, Bambi was only loaned to the government for a year, so a new symbol was needed, leading to the creation of Smokey Bear.<ref name="AboutTheCampaign">Template:Cite web</ref> Bambi and his mother also make a cameo appearance in the satirical 1955 Donald Duck short No Hunting: drinking from a forest stream, the deer are startled by a sudden trickle of beer cans and other debris, and Bambi's mother tells him, "Man is in the forest. Let's dig out."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 2006, the Ad Council, in partnership with the United States Forest Service, started a series of Public Service Announcements that feature footage from Bambi and Bambi II for wildfire prevention. During the ads, as the Bambi footage is shown, the screen will momentarily fade into black with the text "Don't let our forests...become once upon a time", and usually (but not always) ending the ads with Bambi's line "Mother, what we gonna do today?" followed by Smokey Bear saying "Only you can prevent wildfires" as the Smokey logo is shown on the screen.Template:Citation needed Bambi had previously been the Forest Service's advertising icon beginning in 1942, but was only allowed by Disney to use the character for a year.<ref name="AboutTheCampaign"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In December 2011, Bambi was among the films selected for preservation in the Library of Congress' National Film Registry.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In its induction, the Registry said that the film was one of Walt Disney's favorites and that it has been "recognized for its eloquent message of nature conservation."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Characters of the film appear in several other Disney media, such as guest appearances in the animated television series House of Mouse, Bambi being a character to summon in the video game Kingdom Hearts and its sequel Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Bambi, Thumper, Flower, Faline and Great Prince of the Forest being playable characters in Disney Magic Kingdoms.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On December 17, 2018, a prison sentence passed against a man, in what is considered the biggest deer poaching case in Missouri history, contained the stipulation that the prisoner must view the film at least once each month during his one-year prison sentence.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Media and merchandise

Comic adaptation

The Silly Symphony Sunday comic strip ran a three-month-long adaptation of Bambi from July 19 to October 4, 1942.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Follow-up

Template:Main A follow-up, Bambi II, was released in 2006. Set in the middle of Bambi, Bambi II shows the Great Prince of the Forest struggling to raise the motherless Bambi, and Bambi's doubts about his father's love. While the film was a direct-to-video release in the United States and other countries, including Canada, China, Hong Kong, Japan and Taiwan, it was a theatrical release in some countries, including Australia, Austria, Brazil, Dominican Republic, France, Mexico, the United Kingdom and some other European countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

CGI remake

On January 28, 2020, it was announced that a photorealistic CGI feature-length remake is in development with a script co-written by Geneva Robertson-Dworet and Lindsey Beer. Paul Weitz, Chris Weitz, and Andrew Miano will produce the film; a joint-venture production between Walt Disney Pictures, Depth of Field Studios, and Known Universe Productions.<ref name="Remake">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Disney described the film as a "companion piece" to The Jungle Book (2016) and The Lion King (2019), as the three films feature wildlife that requires extensive CGI and special effects.<ref name="Remake"/> On June 13, 2023, it was revealed that Sarah Polley is in talks to direct the film, which is said to be a musical that will feature music from six-time Grammy-winning country star Kacey Musgraves. Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster wrote the most recent draft of the script.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As of March 2024, Polley was reportedly no longer attached as director.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The copyrights for Bambi, a Life in the Woods were inherited by Anna Wyler, Salten's daughter, who renewed them in 1954. After her death, Wyler's husband sold the rights to Twin Books, a publishing company which subsequently filed a lawsuit against Disney, claiming Disney owed it money for the continued licensing for the use of the book. Disney countered by claiming that Salten had published the story in 1923 without a copyright notice, thus it immediately entered into the public domain. Disney also argued that if the claimed 1923 publication date was accurate, then the copyright renewal filed in 1954 had been registered after the deadline and was thus invalid. The courts initially upheld Disney's view; however, in 1996, the Ninth Circuit Court reversed the decision on appeal in Twin Books Corp. v. Walt Disney Co., 83 F.3d 1162 (1996).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web Template:PD-notice</ref> The American copyright of the novel expired on January 1, 2022.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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