Chinese pronouns
Template:Use dmy dates Template:Short descriptionChinese pronounsTemplate:Efn are pronouns in the Chinese languages. This article highlights Mandarin Chinese pronouns. There are also Cantonese pronouns and Hokkien pronouns.
Chinese pronouns differ somewhat from English pronouns and those of other Indo-European languages. For instance, there is no differentiation in the spoken language between "he", "she" and "it" (though a written difference was introduced after contact with the West), and pronouns are not inflected to indicate whether they are the subject or object of a sentence. Mandarin Chinese further lacks a distinction between the possessive adjective ("my") and possessive pronoun ("mine"); both are formed by appending the particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} de. Pronouns in Chinese are often substituted by honorific alternatives.
Personal pronouns
In Mandarin
| Person | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} wǒ I, me |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}* wǒmen we, us |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}† zánmen we, us (inclusive) | |
| 2nd | lang}} nǐ thou, you (informal) |
lang}} nín you (formal) |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nǐmen you (generic) |
lang}} nín you (formal) |
| 3rd | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} tā he, him / she, her / it |
{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} tāmen they, them | ||
- * {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can be either inclusive or exclusive, depending on the circumstance where it is used.
- † {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is mainly used by northern speakers.
Following the iconoclastic May Fourth Movement in 1919, and to accommodate the translation of Western literature, written vernacular Chinese developed separate pronouns for gender-differentiated speech, and to address animals, deities, and inanimate objects.
This can be traced back to colonialism and Western-oriented linguistics in the early 1900s, where Eurocentric standardization of language and culture emerged to purify and create "effective governance.”<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> English was seen as progressive, while Chinese was characterized as a delayed language.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Before written Chinese, spoken Chinese did not differentiate between genders in regard to pronouns. Written Chinese was only relevant to the public under imperial decrees, and literacy was a privilege that ordinary citizens rarely had access to, due to Confucianist ideals.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There was an assumption that alphabetic literacy was superior in nature, and the assimilation of the Chinese language was initiated by Catholic missionaries from the West.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> During the transition from the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China, the modern nation urgently moved to adopt European ideologies,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> which translated to culture and linguistics.
“The focus on building a unified state was a driver in standardizing the Chinese language, which largely pushed Putonghua to be the dominant dialect. On the other hand, China’s minority languages suffered a huge blow—with diversity and culture being eradicated in the name of assimilation.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Language standardization, thus, became the norm as it was seen as a positive and rational step towards industrialization. <ref>Template:Citation</ref>
Throughout the 1920s, a debate continued between three camps: those that preferred to preserve the preexisting use of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} without distinction between genders, those that wished to preserve the spoken non-gendered pronoun but introduce a new female pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in writing, and those that wished to introduce a differently pronounced female pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} enjoyed widespread support in the 1920s and 1930s but lost out to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} after the Chinese Civil War.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Currently, written pronouns are divided between the masculine human {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (he, him), feminine human {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (she, her), and non-human {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (it), and similarly in the plural. This distinction does not exist in the spoken language, where moreover tā is restricted to animate reference; inanimate entities are usually referred to with demonstrative pronouns for 'this' (这/這 zhè) and 'that' (那 nà).<ref>Sun, pp. 166–167.</ref>
Other, rarer new written pronouns in the second person are nǐ ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "you, a deity"), nǐ ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "you, a male"), and nǐ ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "you, a female"). In the third person, they are tā ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "it, an animal"), tā ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "it, a deity"), and tā ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "it, an inanimate object"). Among users of traditional Chinese characters, these distinctions are only made in Taiwanese Mandarin; in simplified Chinese, tā ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is the only third-person non-human form and nǐ ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is the only second person form. The third person distinction between "he" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and "she" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) remain in use in all forms of written standard Mandarin.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the early 21st century, some members of genderfluid and queer Chinese online communities started using X也 and TA to refer to a generic, anonymous, or non-binary third person.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As of June 2022, neither have been encoded as a single code point in Unicode,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and neither are considered standard usage. Since at least 2014, Bilibili has used TA in its user pages.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Additional notes
- The first-person pronouns {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ǎn and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ǒu "I" are infrequently used in Mandarin conversation. They are of dialectal origin. However, their usage is gaining popularity among the young, most notably in online communications.
- According to Wang Li, the second person formal pronoun nín ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "you, formal; polite") is derived from the fusion of the second person plural nǐmen ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "you, formal; polite"), making it somewhat analogous to the T-V distinction in Romance languages. Consistent with this hypothesized origin, *nínmen is traditionally considered to be a grammatically incorrect expression for the formal second person plural. Instead, the alternative phrases dàjiā (大家, "you, formal plural") and gèwèi (各位, "you, formal plural") are used, with the latter being somewhat more formal than the former. In addition, some dialects use an analogous formal third person pronoun tān (怹, "he/she, formal; polite").
- Traditional Chinese characters, as influenced by translations from Western languages and the Bible in the nineteenth century, occasionally distinguished gender in pronouns, although that distinction is abandoned in simplified characters. Those traditional characters developed after Western contact include both masculine and feminine forms of "you" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). In the simplified system, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is rare.
In other Sinitic languages
There are many other pronouns in modern Sinitic languages, such as Taiwanese Hokkien {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Zh) "you" and Written Cantonese {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (keúih deih) "they." There exist many more pronouns in Classical Chinese and in literary works, including {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (rǔ) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (ěr) for "you", and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (wú) for "I" (see Chinese honorifics). They are not routinely encountered in colloquial speech.
| Historical | Modern | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shang and early Zhou period<ref>Laurent Sagart: The Roots of Old Chinese. (Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV, Volume 184) John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia 1999. Template:ISBN, S. 142–147; W. A. C. H. Dobson: Early Archaic Chinese. A Descriptive Grammar. University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1962, S. 112–114.</ref><ref name="Rekonstruktionen Baxter Sagart">Ancient Chinese reconstructions according to Baxter and Sagart Template:Webarchive.</ref> | Classical Chinese<ref>Note: The specified forms represent only a small selection.</ref><ref name="Rekonstruktionen Baxter Sagart"/> | Northern and Southern dynasties period and Tang dynasty<ref>Note: Middle Chinese pronunciations given in Baxter's notation.</ref> | Standard Chinese (Mandarin Chinese) | Shanghainese (Wu Chinese) | Hokkien (Min Chinese)<ref>Shi, Q.-S. (2016). Personal Pronouns in Southern Min Dialect. In P.-H. Ting et al. (Eds.). New Horizons in the Study of Chinese: Dialectology, Grammar, and Philology (pp. 181–190). Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.</ref> | Meixian Hakka (Hakka Chinese)<ref>Mataro J. Hashimoto: The Hakka Dialect. A linguistic study of Its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. University Press, Cambridge 1973. Template:ISBN</ref><ref>Hakka Affairs Council. (2017). Vocabulary Words for the Hakka Proficiency Test: Elementary (Sixian Dialect) [客語能力認證基本辭彙-初級(四縣腔)]. Retrieved from https://elearning.hakka.gov.tw/ver2015</ref> | Cantonese (Yue Chinese) | ||
| Singular | 1. | lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration (subjective and possessive only), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} ngaX, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ngu | lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} Template:Zhi | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
| 2. | lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} nejX, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nyoX, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nejX | lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} Template:Zhi | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | |
| 3. | lang}} Template:Transliteration (possessive), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration (objective), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration (possessive),
third person subject pronoun did not exist |
lang}} Template:Transliteration (objective), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration (possessive), third person subject pronoun did not exist | lang}} gi, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gjo; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ’jij, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} tsyi, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} tha | lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} Template:Zhi | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | |
| Plural | 1. | lang}} Template:Transliteration | same as singular | Singular + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} tongX, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} dzaw, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pwojH |
lang}} Template:Transliteration INCL. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration |
lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} Template:Zhi INCL. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Zhi | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} INCL. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
| 2. | lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} Template:Transliteration | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} Template:Zhi | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | |||
| 3. | (not used) | Template:Nowrap | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | lang}} Template:Zhi | lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Template:Nowrap | |||
Possessives
To indicate alienable possession, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (de) is appended to the pronoun. For inalienable possession, such as family and entities very close to the owner, this may be omitted, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (wǒ mā) "my mother". For older generations, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (lìng) is the equivalent to the modern form {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (nínde), as in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (lìngzūn) "your father". In literary style, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (qí) is sometimes used for "his" or "her" or as a gender-neutral pronoun; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} means "his father" or "her father".
In Cantonese, for possessive, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (ge3) is appended to the pronoun. It is used in the same way as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in Mandarin.
In Taiwanese Hokkien, possessive pronouns are homophonous with plural pronouns. For example, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Zh) can mean either "your" or "you (plural)".
Demonstrative pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns work the same as in English.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Proximal | lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} zhège this |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} zhèxiē these |
| Distal | lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nàge that |
lang}} nàxiē those |
The distinction between singular and plural are made by the classifier {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (gè) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (xiē), and the following nouns remain the same. Usually inanimate objects are referred using these pronouns rather than the personal pronouns {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (tā) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (tāmen). Traditional forms of these pronouns are: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (zhège), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (zhèxiē), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (nàge), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (nàxiē).
Interrogative pronouns
| Pronoun | Alternative HÉ-system | English |
|---|---|---|
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} shéi |
lang}} hérén (what person) |
who |
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nǎge |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} hége (what one) |
which one |
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} shénme |
lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} hé / héwù (what) |
what |
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nǎlǐ {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nǎr |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} héchù {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} hédì (what location) |
where |
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} shénme shíhou |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} héshí (what time) |
when |
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} wèi shénme |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} wèihé (for what) |
why |
| lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} zěnme |
lang}} rúhé (what to follow) |
how |
| lang}} duōshǎo {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jǐ |
lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jǐhé (what the amount) |
how much |
Indefinite pronouns
| Pronoun | English |
|---|---|
| lang}} dàjiā | everyone |
| lang}} shéidōu | |
| lang}} shéiyě | anybody |
| lang}} shéidōubù | no one |
| lang}} shéiyěbù | nobody |
Pronouns in imperial times
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- See also Chinese honorifics.
In imperial times, the pronoun for "I" was commonly omitted when speaking politely or to someone with higher social status. "I" was usually replaced with special pronouns to address specific situations. Examples include guǎrén ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) during early Chinese history and zhèn ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) after the Qin dynasty when the Emperor is speaking to his subjects. When the subjects speak to the Emperor, they address themselves as chén ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), or "your official". It was extremely impolite and taboo to address the Emperor as "you" or to refer to oneself as "I".
In modern times, the practice of self-deprecatory terms is still used in specific formal situations. In résumés, the term guì ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; lit. noble) is used for "you" and "your"; e.g., guì gōngsī ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) refers to "your company". Běnrén ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; lit. this person) is used to refer to oneself.
See also
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