Comrade

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File:Harrison Fisher WWI American Red Cross poster.jpg
World War I American Red Cross poster by Harrison Fisher, 1918

In political contexts, comrade means a fellow party member. The political use was inspired by the French Revolution, after which it grew into a form of address between socialists and workers. Since the Russian Revolution, popular culture in the West has often associated it with communism. As such, it can also be used as a reference to leftists, akin to "Template:Wikt-lang". In particular, the Russian word Template:Wikt-lang (Template:Tlit) may be used as a reference to communists.

The influence of the term in communism in the 20th century led anarchists to prefer the term 'companion', a term that has been used in Western Europe since the end of the 19th century.

Etymology

The term comrade generally means 'mate', 'colleague', or 'ally', and derives from the Spanish and Portuguese term Template:Lang,<ref>Camarade - Académie françaiseTemplate:Dead link</ref> Template:Lit, from Latin Template:Lang, Template:Lit.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It may also specifically mean "fellow soldier", comrade in arms.

Background

Upon abolishing the titles of nobility in France, and the terms Template:Lang and Template:Lang (literally, 'my lord' and 'my lady'), the revolutionaries employed the term Template:Lang for men and Template:Lang for women (both meaning 'citizen') to refer to each other.<ref name="Heuer2007">Template:Cite book</ref> The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Template:Lang to emphasize his loss of privilege.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists elsewhere began to look for a similar egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". In German, the word Template:Lang had long been used as an affectionate form of address among people linked by some strong common interest, such as a sport, a college, a profession (notably as a soldier), or simply friendship.<ref name="PittYoung1971">Template:Cite book</ref> The term was often used with political overtones in the revolutions of 1848, and was subsequently borrowed by French and English. In English, the first known use of the word comrade with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice.<ref name="Harris2016">Template:Cite book</ref>

Political usage

Russian and Soviet usage

Template:Redirect In the late 19th century, Russian Marxists and other leftist revolutionaries adopted the word "Template:Lang" (Template:Langx) as a translation for the German term Template:Lang. Originally, "tovarisch" meant "business companion" or "travel (or other adventure) mate" deriving from the Old Turkic Template:Lang; abbreviated Template:Lang, and related to the noun Template:Lang (Template:Lang, meaning 'merchandise').<ref name=vienna>Anrede "Genosse" nicht mehr zeitgemäß</ref><ref name=laden>Template:Cite web</ref> In socialist and labour movements, it became a common form of address, as in Template:Lang or Template:Lang Chairman or simply as Template:Lang (especially German) social democracy. After the Russian Revolution, translations of "tovarisch" spread globally among communists, though the term "comrade" became closely associated with the Soviet Union specifically in the eyes of many.<ref name=":0" />

With the February Revolution of 1917, traditional forms of address common in Tsarist Russia would become deeply unpopular and were replaced by the more republican and egalitarian title of citizen. However, this would be overshadowed by the address of comrade due to the more revolutionary connotations. The term "citizen" did not seem sufficiently pro-revolutionary as many monarchists identified themselves as 'Russian citizens and loyal subjects of the sovereign-Emperor'. In contrast being called "comrade" implied a kind of revolutionary zeal and exceptionalism. Yet, it was widely used across society: socialists in the Provisional Government were known as 'comrade ministers', policemen and Cossacks were addressed as 'comrades', and even rural witch-doctors became 'comrade spirits'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

During the revolutionary period, once the Bolsheviks had taken power, they continued to use "comrade" to address or refer to people presumed to be sympathetic to the revolution and to the Soviet state, such as workers, members of the Communist Party, and (for a time) Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. For everyone else, citizen was the preferred term; however, it could also serve as an insult, especially if the individual expected a more respectful address. For instance, the guards of Nicholas II deliberately called him 'citizen Romanov' during his captivity. The anti-Bolshevik socialists, such as the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks, also addressed each other as "comrade", while the Whites mockingly, referred to their enemies as 'the comrades'.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> As discontent with the Bolshevik regime grew, even within the Soviet camp, comrade could be seen as an insult. in one instance, a woman on a Petrograd tram, when addressed as "comrade", replied: 'What's all this 'comrade' talk? Take your 'comrade' and go to hell!".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

By the mid-1920s, the address Template:Lang had become so widespread in the Soviet Union that it was used casually as titles like "Mister" or "Sir" in English. That use persisted until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Still, the original meaning partly re-surfaced in some contexts: criminals and suspects were only addressed as "citizens" and not as Template:Lang, and expressly refusing to address someone as Template:Lang would generally be perceived as a hostile act or, during the Stalin era, even as an accusation of being "Anti-Soviet".<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref>

Currently, in the Russian Armed Forces, Template:Lang is used as a mandatory and statutory form of address, always to be used when military personnel address one another. Senior officers referring to subordinates must call them either by their military rank and last name, or only their military rank with Template:Lang being added before the rank. The reverse is also true, with subordinates referring to senior officers by military rank and the prefix of Template:Lang, though subordinates do not call their superiors by last name. One example is "Comrade Senior Lieutenant" (товарищ старший лейтенант). <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Chinese usage

Template:Main

In Chinese, the translation of comrade is Template:Lang (Template:Zh), literally meaning '(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc.'. It was first introduced in the political sense by Sun Yat-sen to refer to his followers.Template:Citation needed The Template:Lang (Nationalist Party), which was co-founded by Sun Yat-sen, has a long tradition of using this term to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Chang is a loyal and reliable comrade (Template:Lang)."<ref>See, for example, the remarks of Frank Hsieh after losing the Republic of China presidential election in 2008: 凝聚黨內團結　謝長廷：我決定留到五二五 Template:Webarchive: "很多同志希望我能夠留到五月二十五日" ("Many comrades hoped that I could stay to May 25". See 中國國民黨第17屆中央委員會第2次全體會議出、列席同志發言須知 Template:Webarchive ("Rules for speaking for attending comrades at the 2nd plenary meeting of the 17th central committee of the Chinese Kuomintang") for an example of its usage in the Kuomintang.</ref>

Nevertheless, the term was promoted most actively by the Chinese Communist Party during its struggle for power. It was used both as a noun and as a title for basically anyone in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded. For example, women were Template:Lang ('female comrade'), children were Template:Lang ('little comrade') and seniors were Template:Lang ('old comrade'). However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of such daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Chinese Communist Party. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as Template:Lang is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.Template:Citation needed

At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as Template:Lang, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, Template:Lang is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (e.g., Comrade Mao Zedong, Comrade Deng Xiaoping).Template:Citation needed

In October 2016, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a directive urging all 90 million party members to keep calling each other "comrades" instead of less egalitarian terms.<ref name="comrades2016">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=comradesBBC>Template:Cite news</ref> It is also in the regulations of the Chinese Armed Forces as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "Comrade Colonel", or simply "comrade/s" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several servicepeople.)<ref name="military">Template:Cite book</ref>

The SAR territories of Hong Kong and Macau generally use Template:Lang as a catch-all term to refer to members of the LGBT community; its use as a word for "comrade" has historically been uncommon due to both territories formerly being under foreign administrations. This definition of Template:Lang is becoming increasingly popular among mainland Chinese youth and a growing number of older Chinese people have stopped using Template:Lang due to its new association with the LGBT community.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

South African usage

During the 1970s and 1980s, comrade emerged as a popular revolutionary form of address in South Africa among those involved in anti-apartheid political activities.<ref name=Jaster>Template:Cite book</ref> For example, members of the African National Congress and South African Communist Party frequently referred to each other as comrade.<ref name=SACP>Template:Cite book</ref>

Among poor residents of the country's segregated townships, it was also used to specifically denote members of militant youth organisations.<ref name=ZA1>Template:Cite book</ref> These radical activists led consumer boycotts, organised anti-apartheid rallies and demonstrations, and intimidated those suspected of having ties to the South African government or security forces.<ref name=ZA1/> In this particular context, the English title comrades was also used interchangeably with the Xhosa term Template:Lang.<ref name=ZA1/>

Zimbabwean usage

In Zimbabwe, the term is used for persons affiliated with the ZANU–PF political party.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The state media also use Cde as short for comrade.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

South Sudanese usage

Members of the Sudan People's Liberation Army call each other 'Comrade'.<ref name="Baas2012">Template:Cite book</ref>

British usage

The British Union of Fascists used the word commonly to refer to members. Their marching song, set to the music of the Template:Lang began 'Comrades, the voices'. The writer, E.D. Randall, defended the usage of the word by stating that 'comrades' "fittingly and completely expresses the ideal of unity in the service of a common cause".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Kenyan usage

In Kenya, the use of the word comrade is in a more traditional sense to mean 'member'. It is commonly used by trade unionists, political parties and University students as a form of solidarity and common identity. It features prominently in chant songs by University student leaders and popular youth culture as a term of endearment. <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Cuban usage

In Cuba, the corresponding revolutionary form of address in Spanish was compañero, e.g., Compañero Fidel.<ref>Sánchez-Boudy, José (1978). Diccionario de cubanismos más usuales (Cómo habla el cubano) (in Spanish). Miami: Ediciones Universal. En Cuba, hoy en día, se llama a todo el mundo «compañero».</ref>

In other languages

See also

References

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