Amharic
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AmharicTemplate:Efn is an Ethio-Semitic language, which is a subgrouping within the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages. It is spoken as a first language by the Amhara people, and also serves as a lingua franca for all other metropolitan populations in Ethiopia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The language serves as the official working language of the Ethiopian federal government, and is also the official or working language of several of Ethiopia's federal regions.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> In 2020 in Ethiopia, it had over 33.7 million mother-tongue speakers of which 31 million are ethnically Amhara, and more than 25.1 million second language speakers in 2019, making the total number of speakers over 58.8 million.<ref>Template:E28</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Amharic is the largest, most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and the most spoken mother-tongue in Ethiopia. Amharic is also the second most widely spoken Semitic language in the world (after Arabic).<ref name=e25>Template:Ethnologue25</ref><ref name="The world factbook">Template:Cite web</ref>
Amharic is written left-to-right using a system that grew out of the Geʽez script.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> The segmental writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units is called an abugida (Template:Lang).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The graphemes are called Template:Lang (Template:Lang), which means Template:Gloss.
There is no universally agreed-upon Romanization of Amharic into Latin script. The Amharic examples in the sections below use one system that is common among linguists specializing in Ethiopian Semitic languages.
Dialects
Not much has been published about Amharic dialect differences. All dialects are mutually intelligible, but certain minor variations are noted.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Jewish Amharic
The Beta Israel who today live mostly in Israel speak a dialect of Amharic called Jewish Amharic (Template:Langx). It replaced many Christian phrases with Jewish ones. One example is the replacing the phrase "It is good that Mary had pardoned you" with "It is good that God has relieved you peacefully"; these phrases are used to congratulate a mother on successful childbirth. Another example is calling a type of grasshopper "Moses's horses" instead of "Mary's horses".<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> This variety also contains influence from Modern Hebrew due to the large Beta Israel presence in Israel. Currently Jewish Amharic is declining as the Beta Israel gradually abandon Amharic in favor of Hebrew.<ref name=":1" />
History
Amharic has been the official working language of Ethiopia, language of the courts, the language of trade and everyday communications and of the military since the late 12th century. The Amhara nobles supported the Zagwe prince Lalibela in his power struggle against his brothers which led him to make Amharic Lisane Negus (tongue of the king) as well as fill the Amhara nobles in the top positions of his kingdom.<ref>Mohammad Hassan, The Oromo of Ethiopia, pp.3</ref> The appellation of Template:Gloss (Template:Langx, Template:Lang; Template:Langx, Template:Lang) and its use in the royal court are otherwise traced to the Amhara Emperor Yekuno Amlak.<ref>The Southern Marches of Imperial Ethiopia: Essays in History and Social Anthropology, Donham Donald Donham, Lecturer in Social Anthropology Wendy James, Dr, PhD, Former Senior Lecturer in Mathematics Christopher Clapham, Patrick Manning CUP Archive, Sep 4, 1986, p. 11, https://books.google.com/books?id=dvk8AAAAIAAJ&q=Lisane+amharic</ref><ref>Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, Paul B. Henze, November 18th 2008, p. 78, https://books.google.com/books?id=3VYBDgAAQBAJ&q=Lisane</ref> It is one of the official languages of Ethiopia, together with other regions like Oromo, Somali, Afar, and Tigrinya. Amharic is an Afro-Asiatic language of the Southwest Semitic group and is related to Geʽez, or Ethiopic, the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox church; Amharic is written in a slightly modified form of the alphabet used for writing the Geʽez language. There are 34 basic characters, each of which has seven forms depending on which vowel is to be pronounced in the syllable. There are also 49 "wa" letters, which form compound sounds involving "w." All together, the alphabet has some 280 letters. Until 2020 Amharic was the sole official language of Ethiopia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="africanews.com" /><ref name="Meyer">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The 2007 census reported that Amharic was spoken by 21.6 million native speakers in Ethiopia.<ref name="catalog.ihsn.org">Central Statistical Agency. 2010. "Population and Housing Census 2007 Report, National". Accessed 13 December 2016].</ref> More recent sources state the number of first-language speakers in 2018 as nearly 32 million, with another 25 million second-language speakers in Ethiopia.<ref name="e25" /> Additionally, 3 million emigrants outside of Ethiopia speak the language.Template:Citation needed Most of the Ethiopian Jewish communities in Ethiopia and Israel speak Amharic.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Citation needed<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Furthermore, Amharic is considered a holy language by the Rastafari religion and is widely used among its followers worldwide.
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Linguistic development theory
Early Afro-Asiatic populations speaking proto-Semitic, proto-Cushitic and proto-Omotic languages would have diverged by the fourth or fifth millennium BC. Shortly afterwards, the proto-Cushitic and proto-Omotic groups would have settled in the Ethiopian highlands, with the proto-Semitic speakers crossing the Sinai Peninsula into Asia. A later return movement of peoples from South Arabia would have introduced the Semitic languages to Ethiopia.<ref name="Levine2728" /> Based on archaeological evidence, the presence of Semitic speakers in the territory date to some time before 500 BC.<ref name="eoaamhara">Template:Cite book</ref> Linguistic analysis suggests the presence of Semitic languages in Ethiopia as early as 2000 BC. Levine indicates that by the end of that millennium, the core inhabitants of Greater Ethiopia would have consisted of dark-skinned agropastoralists speaking Afro-Asiatic languages of the Semitic, Cushitic and Omotic branches.<ref name="Levine2728">Template:Cite book</ref>
Other scholars such as Messay Kebede and Daniel E. Alemu argue that migration across the Red Sea was defined by reciprocal exchange, if it even occurred at all, and that Ethio-Semitic-speaking ethnic groups should not be characterized as foreign invaders.<ref name="Kebede 2003 1–19">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Alemu 2007 56–64">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Amharic is a South Ethio-Semitic language, along with Gurage, Argobba, Harari, and others.<ref name=":Meyer2011">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":Hetzron72p36">Template:Cite book</ref> While Tigrinya is 68% similar to Geʽez, the lexical similarity of Amharic to the ancient language is lower at 62%.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Due to the social stratification of the time, the Cushitic Agaw adopted the South Ethio-Semitic language and eventually absorbed the Semitic population.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Amharic thus developed a larger Cushitic substratum than the more northwardly languages where it also exists such as the Modern South Arabian family, along with the Semitic superstratum.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The northernmost South Ethio-Semitic speakers, or the proto-Amhara, remained in constant contact with their North Ethio-Semitic neighbors, evidenced by linguistic analysis and oral traditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> A 7th century southward shift of the center of gravity of the Kingdom of Aksum and the ensuing integration and Christianization of the proto-Amhara also resulted in a high prevalence of Geʽez sourced lexicon in Amharic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Some time after the 9th century AD, Amharic diverged from its closest relative, Argobba, probably due to religious differences as the Argobba adopted Islam.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In 1983, Lionel Bender proposed that Amharic may have been constructed as a pidgin as early as the 4th century AD to enable communication between Aksumite soldiers speaking Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic languages, but this hypothesis has not garnered widespread acceptance. The preservation in Old Amharic of VSO word order and gutturals typical of Semitic languages, Cushitic influences shared with other Ethio-Semitic languages (especially those of the Southern branch), and the number of geographically distinct Cushitic languages that have influenced Amharic at different points in time support a natural evolution of Amharic from a Proto-Ethio-Semitic language with considerable Cushitic influences (similar to Gurage, Tigrinya, etc.).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":Meyer2011" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Based off Amharic terms loaned into nearby languages, and the distinction between /ʔ/, /a/, /x/, /h/, and /ħ/ in the earliest known written form of the language, pre-17th century Amharic exhibited all the phonemes typical of Semitic languages. Along with that, pre-Gondarine period Amharic was not a rigidly SOV word order language as it is today and a VSO order like that of Geʽez and Classical Arabic was common. During the end of the medieval period a transition from the more Semtic-featured earlier version of the language, along with other sound shifts, to the more innovative modern Amharic took place.<ref name="MajorLanguages">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>The Origin of Amharic - Girma A. Demeke, Red Sea Press, 2014</ref>
Phonology
The Amharic ejective consonants correspond to the Proto-Semitic "emphatic consonants." In the Ethiopianist tradition they are often transcribed with a dot below the letter.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | Template:IPAlink | Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr | Template:IPAlink |
| Mid | Template:IPAlink | Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr | Template:IPAlink |
| Low | Template:IPAlink |
The notation of central vowels in the Ethiopianist tradition is shown in angled brackets.
Allophones
The voiced bilabial plosive /b/ is phonetically realized as a voiced labial approximant [β̞] medially between sonorants in non-geminated form. The fricative ejective /Template:IPA link/ is heard as a fricative ejective [[[:Template:IPA link]]], but is mostly heard as the affricate sound [[[:Template:IPA link]]]. The rhotic consonant is realized as a trill when geminated and a tap otherwise. The closed central unrounded vowel Template:Angle bracket /ɨ/ and mid-central vowel Template:Angle bracket /ə/ are generally fronted to [ɪ] and [ɛ], respectively, following palatal consonants, and generally retracted and rounded to [ʊ] and [ɔ], respectively, following labialized velar consonants.<ref name="IPAHandbook" />
Examples
| Geʽez | Romanized | IPA | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:IPA | drum |
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:IPA | Ethiopian birr |
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:IPA | this |
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:IPA | whose |
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:IPA | in |
| Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:IPA | man |
Writing system
Template:Anchor Template:See also
The Amharic script is an abugida, and the graphemes of the Amharic writing system are called Template:Lang.<ref name="MajorLanguages">Template:Cite book</ref> It is derived from a modification of the Geʽez script.<ref name=":0" /> Each character represents a consonant+vowel sequence, but the basic shape of each character is determined by the consonant, which is modified for the vowel. Some consonant phonemes are written by more than one series of characters: Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, and Template:IPAslink (the last one has four distinct letter forms). This is because these Template:Lang originally represented distinct sounds, but phonological changes merged them.<ref name="MajorLanguages" /> The citation form for each series is the consonant+ä form, i.e. the first column of the Template:Lang. The Amharic script is included in Unicode, and glyphs are included in fonts available with major operating systems.
Alphasyllabary
Gemination
As in most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive in Amharic. That is, consonant length can distinguish words from one another; for example, Template:Lang 'he said', Template:Lang 'there is'; Template:Lang 'he hits', Template:Lang 'he will be hit'. Gemination is not indicated in Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do not find this to be a problem. This property of the writing system is analogous to the vowels of Arabic and Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages, which are not normally indicated in writing. Ethiopian novelist Haddis Alemayehu, who was an advocate of Amharic orthography reform, indicated gemination in his novel Love to the Grave by placing a dot above the characters whose consonants were geminated, but this practice is rare.
Punctuation
Punctuation includes the following:
- Template:Lang section mark
- Template:Lang word separator
- Template:Lang full stop (period)
- Template:Lang comma
- Template:Lang semicolon
- Template:Lang colon
- Template:Lang preface colon (introduces speech from a descriptive prefix)
- Template:Lang question mark
- Template:Lang paragraph separator
Grammar
- Simple Amharic sentences
One may construct simple Amharic sentences by using a subject and a predicate. Here are a few simple sentences:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Amharic grammar distinguishes person, number, and often gender. This includes personal pronouns such as English I, Amharic Template:Lang Template:Lang; English she, Amharic Template:Lang Template:Lang. As in other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear in three other places in their grammar.
- Subject–verb agreement
All Amharic verbs agree with their subjects; that is, the person, number, and (in the second- and third-person singular) gender of the subject of the verb are marked by suffixes or prefixes on the verb. Because the affixes that signal subject agreement vary greatly with the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are normally not considered to be pronouns and are discussed elsewhere in this article under verb conjugation.
- Object pronoun suffixes
Amharic verbs often have additional morphology that indicates the person, number, and (second- and third-person singular) gender of the object of the verb. Template:Fs interlinear
While morphemes such as Template:Lang in this example are sometimes described as signaling object agreement, analogous to subject agreement, they are more often thought of as object pronoun suffixesTemplate:Fact because, unlike the markers of subject agreement, they do not vary significantly with the tense/aspect/mood of the verb. For arguments of the verb other than the subject or the object, there are two separate sets of related suffixes, one with a benefactive meaning (to, for), the other with an adversative or locative meaning (against, to the detriment of, on, at). Template:Fs interlinear
Morphemes such as Template:Lang and Template:Lang in these examples will be referred to in this article as prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such as for her and on her, to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such as Template:Lang 'her'.
- Possessive suffixes
Amharic has a further set of morphemes that are suffixed to nouns, signaling possession: Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Gloss, Template:Lang Template:Lang, Template:Gloss, Template:Lang; Template:Lang, Template:Gloss.
In each of these four aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object pronoun suffixes, and possessive suffixes, Amharic distinguishes eight combinations of person, number, and gender. For first person, there is a two-way distinction between singular (I) and plural (we), whereas for second and third persons, there is a distinction between singular and plural and within the singular a further distinction between masculine and feminine (you m. sg., you f. sg., you pl., he, she, they).
Amharic is a pro-drop language: neutral sentences in which no element is emphasized normally omit independent pronouns: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'he's Ethiopian', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'I invited her'. The Amharic words that translate he, I, and her do not appear in these sentences as independent words. However, in such cases, the person, number, and (second- or third-person singular) gender of the subject and object are marked on the verb. When the subject or object in such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'he's Ethiopian', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'I invited her', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'I invited her'.
The table below shows alternatives for many of the forms. The choice depends on what precedes the form in question, usually whether this is a vowel or a consonant, for example, for the first-person singular possessive suffix, Template:Lang Template:Lang 'my country', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'my body'.
Within second- and third-person singular, there are two additional polite independent pronouns, for reference to people to whom the speaker wishes to show respect. This usage is an example of the so-called T–V distinction that is made in many languages. The polite pronouns in Amharic are Template:Lang Template:Lang 'you (sg. polite)'. and Template:Lang Template:Lang 's/he (polite)'. Although these forms are singular semantically—they refer to one person—they correspond to third-person plural elsewhere in the grammar, as is common in other T–V systems. For the possessive pronouns, however, the polite 2nd person has the special suffix Template:Lang 'your sg. pol.'
For possessive pronouns ('mine', 'yours', etc.), Amharic adds the independent pronouns to the preposition Template:Lang 'of': Template:Lang Template:Lang 'mine', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'yours m. sg.', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'yours f. sg.', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'hers', etc.
Reflexive pronouns
For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Amharic adds the possessive suffixes to the noun Template:Lang Template:Lang 'head': Template:Lang Template:Lang 'myself', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'herself', etc.
Demonstrative pronouns
Like English, Amharic makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these') and far ('that, those') demonstrative expressions (pronouns, adjectives, adverbs). Besides number, Amharic – unlike English – also distinguishes between the masculine and the feminine genders in the singular.
| Number, Gender | Near | Far | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Masculine | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| Feminine | Template:Lang Template:Lang, Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | |
| Plural | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | |
There are also separate demonstratives for formal reference, comparable to the formal personal pronouns: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'this, these (formal)' and Template:Lang Template:Lang 'that, those (formal)'.
The singular pronouns have combining forms beginning with zz instead of y when they follow a preposition: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'because of this; therefore', Template:Lang Template:Lang 'like that'. The plural demonstratives, like the second and third person plural personal pronouns, are formed by adding the plural prefix Template:Lang Template:Lang to the singular masculine forms.
Nouns
Amharic nouns can be primary or derived. A noun like Template:Lang 'foot, leg' is primary, and a noun like Template:Lang 'pedestrian' is a derived noun.
Gender
Amharic nouns can have a masculine or feminine gender. There are several ways to express gender. An example is the old suffix -t for femininity. This suffix is no longer productive and is limited to certain patterns and some isolated nouns. Nouns and adjectives ending in Template:Lang usually take the suffix -t to form the feminine form, e.g. Template:Lang 'Ethiopian (m.)' vs. Template:Lang 'Ethiopian (f.)'; Template:Lang 'heavenly (m.)' vs. Template:Lang 'heavenly (f.)'. This suffix also occurs in nouns and adjective based on the pattern Template:Lang, e.g. Template:Lang 'king' vs. Template:Lang 'queen' and Template:Lang 'holy (m.)' vs. Template:Lang 'holy (f.)'.
Some nouns and adjectives take a feminine marker Template:Lang: Template:Lang 'child, boy' vs. Template:Lang 'girl'; Template:Lang 'sheep, ram' vs. Template:Lang 'ewe'; Template:Lang 'senior, elder (m.)' vs. Template:Lang 'old woman'; Template:Lang 'monkey' vs. Template:Lang 'monkey (f.)'. Some nouns have this feminine marker without having a masculine opposite, e.g. Template:Lang 'spider', Template:Lang 'whirlpool, eddy'. There are, however, also nouns with the Template:Lang suffix that are treated as masculine: Template:Lang 'army', Template:Lang 'big drum'.
The feminine gender is not only used to indicate biological gender, but may also be used to express smallness, e.g. Template:Lang 'the little house' (lit. house-FEM-DEF). The feminine marker can also serve to express tenderness or sympathy.
Specifiers
Amharic has special words that can be used to indicate the gender of people and animals. For people, Template:Lang is used for masculinity and Template:Lang for femininity, e.g. Template:Lang 'boy', Template:Lang 'girl'; Template:Lang 'physician, doctor (m.)', Template:Lang 'physician, doctor (f.)'.
For animals, the words Template:Lang, Template:Lang, or Template:Lang (less usual) can be used to indicate masculine gender, and Template:Lang or Template:Lang to indicate feminine gender. Examples: Template:Lang 'calf (m.)'; Template:Lang 'cock (rooster)'; Template:Lang 'hen'.
Plural
The plural suffix Template:Lang is used to express plurality of nouns. Some morphophonological alternations occur depending on the final consonant or vowel. For nouns ending in a consonant, plain Template:Lang is used: Template:Lang 'house' becomes Template:Lang 'houses'. For nouns ending in a back vowel (-a, -o, -u), the suffix takes the form Template:Lang, e.g. Template:Lang 'dog', Template:Lang 'dogs'; Template:Lang 'drum', Template:Lang 'drums'. Nouns that end in a front vowel pluralize using Template:Lang or Template:Lang, e.g. Template:Lang 'scholar', Template:Lang or Template:Lang 'scholars'. Another possibility for nouns ending in a vowel is to delete the vowel and use plain Template:Lang, as in Template:Lang 'dogs'.
Besides using the normal external plural (Template:Lang), nouns and adjectives can be pluralized by way of reduplicating one of the radicals. For example, Template:Lang 'lady' can take the normal plural, yielding Template:Lang, but Template:Lang 'ladies' is also found.<ref name="Leslau">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp
Some kinship-terms have two plural forms with a slightly different meaning. For example, Template:Lang 'brother' can be pluralized as Template:Lang 'brothers' but also as Template:Lang 'brothers of each other'. Likewise, Template:Lang 'sister' can be pluralized as Template:Lang ('sisters'), but also as Template:Lang 'sisters of each other'.
In compound words, the plural marker is suffixed to the second noun: Template:Lang 'church' (lit. house of Christian) becomes Template:Lang 'churches'.
Archaic forms
Amsalu Aklilu has pointed out that Amharic has inherited a large number of old plural forms directly from Classical Ethiopic (Geʽez) (Amharic: Template:Langx).<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp There are basically two archaic pluralising strategies, called external and internal plural. The external plural consists of adding the suffix -an (usually masculine) or Template:Lang (usually feminine) to the singular form. The internal plural employs vowel quality or apophony to pluralize words, similar to English man vs. men and goose vs. geese. Sometimes combinations of the two systems are found. The archaic plural forms are sometimes used to form new plurals, but this is only considered grammatical in more established cases.
- Examples of the external plural: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'teacher', Template:Lang Template:Lang; Template:Lang Template:Lang 'wise person', Template:Lang Template:Lang; Template:Lang Template:Lang 'priest', Template:Lang Template:Lang; Template:Lang Template:Lang 'word', Template:Lang Template:Lang.
- Examples of the internal plural: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'virgin', Template:Lang Template:Lang; Template:Lang Template:Lang 'land', Template:Lang Template:Lang.
- Examples of combined systems: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'king', Template:Lang Template:Lang; Template:Lang Template:Lang 'star', Template:Lang Template:Lang; Template:Lang Template:Lang 'book', Template:Lang Template:Lang.
Definiteness
If a noun is definite or specified, this is expressed by a suffix, the article, which is -u or -w for masculine singular nouns and Template:Lang, Template:Lang or Template:Lang for feminine singular nouns. For example:
| masculine sg | masculine sg definite | feminine sg | feminine sg definite |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
In singular forms, this article distinguishes between the male and female gender; in plural forms this distinction is absent, and all definites are marked with -u, e.g. Template:Lang 'the houses', Template:Lang 'the maids'. As in the plural, morphophonological alternations occur depending on the final consonant or vowel.
Accusative
Amharic has an accusative marker, -(ə)n. Its use is related to the definiteness of the object, thus Amharic shows differential object marking. In general, if the object is definite, possessed, or a proper noun, the accusative must be used, but if the direct object is not determined, the accusative marker is generally not used.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
The accusative suffix is usually placed after the first word of the noun phrase:
Nominalization
Amharic has various ways to derive nouns from other words or other nouns. One way of nominalizing consists of a form of vowel agreement (similar vowels on similar places) inside the three-radical structures typical of Semitic languages. For example:
- CəCäC: – Template:Lang 'wisdom'; Template:Lang 'sickness'
- CəCCaC-e: – Template:Lang 'obesity'; Template:Lang 'cruelty'
- CəCC-ät: – Template:Lang 'moistness'; Template:Lang 'knowledge'; Template:Lang 'fatness'.
There are also several nominalising suffixes.
- Template:Lang: – 'relation'; Template:Lang 'Christianity'; Template:Lang 'laziness'; Template:Lang 'priesthood'.
- -e, suffixed to place name X, yields 'a person from X': Template:Lang 'someone from Gojjam'.
- Template:Lang and Template:Lang serve to express profession, or some relationship with the base noun: Template:Lang 'pedestrian' (from Template:Lang 'foot'); Template:Lang 'gate-keeper' (from Template:Lang 'gate').
- Template:Lang and Template:Lang – '-ness'; Template:Lang 'Ethiopianness'; Template:Lang 'nearness' (from Template:Lang 'near').
Copula
The copula is expressed by the particle Template:Lang.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
| Pronoun | Form |
|---|---|
| I | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (m. sg.) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (f. sg.) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (polite) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| he | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| she | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| (s)he (polite) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| we | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (pl.) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| they | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
Negative Copula
The negative copula is formed with Template:Lang Template:Lang.
| Pronoun | Form |
|---|---|
| I | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (m. sg.) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (f. sg.) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (polite) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| he | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| she | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| (s)he (polite) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| we | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (pl.) | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| they | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
Past Copula
The past copula is expressed by Template:Lang Template:Lang whose negative is Template:Lang Template:Lang.
Future Copula
The future expressed by the imperfect of Template:Lang Template:Lang, Template:Lang Template:Lang.
Subordinate Copula
The subordinate copula is expressed conjugating Template:Lang Template:Lang for the present and future, and Template:Lang Template:Lang for the past.
Possession
Amharic lacks a specific verb ‘to have’. Instead, it uses verbs of existence combined with an object suffix pronoun. For the present, the verb Template:Lang Template:Lang ‘there is’ is used. For the past, Template:Lang Template:Lang ‘there was’ is used, and for the future, the imperfect of Template:Lang Template:Lang, Template:Lang Template:Lang is used. Thus, a sentence like Template:Lang Template:Lang ‘I have four books’ literally translates to ‘four books is-to-me’. Furthermore, since the possessee is the subject, the verb agrees with the possessee rather than the possessor.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
Verbs
Verb Stems
The basic meaning of Amharic verbs are given by its consonants known as 'radicals' with vowels used to express shades of meaning. They can be divided into the following classes: triradicals, biradicals, quadriradicals, and pluriradicals or verbs with more than four radicals.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
Triradicals
- Type A: Template:Lang Template:Lang, characterized by lack of gemination of the 2nd radical in non-perfect forms.
- Type B: Template:Lang Template:Lang, characterized by gemination of the 2nd radical in all verb forms.
- Type C: Template:Lang Template:Lang, characterized by the vowel Template:Lang after the 1st radical.
Biradicals
In biradicals the 2nd consonant is geminated in the perfect if it is the 2nd radical of the root. The only classes to have three types are: Template:Lang Template:Lang and Template:Lang Template:Lang. Other biradicals only have one type.
- Type Template:Lang Template:Lang:
- Type A: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to hear'
- Type B: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to drink'
- Type C: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to attempt'
- Type Template:Lang Template:Lang:
- Type A: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to remain behind'
- Type B: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to distinguish, separate'
- Type C: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to shave'
Quadriradicals
In quadriradicals, the 3rd radical is geminated in the perfect and has two types:
- Type 1: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to testify'
- Type 2: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'to mix', characterized by the vowel Template:Lang after the 2nd radical.
Derived stems
Derived stems are formed by either reduplication of the 2nd radical in triadicals, and of the 3rd radical in quadriradicals, or by prefixing morphemes.
Conjugation
As in other Semitic languages, Amharic verbs use a combination of prefixes and suffixes to indicate the subject, distinguishing three persons, two numbers, and (in the second and third persons singular) two genders.
Perfect
The perfect is typically used to express the past and formed using suffixes.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
| Pronoun | Suffix | Example verb Template:Lang Template:Lang “to break” |
|---|---|---|
| I | -hu, ku | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (m. sg.) | -h, -k | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (f. sg.) | -š | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| he | -ä | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| she | -äčč | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| we | -(ə)n | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (pl.) | -aččəhu | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| they, (s)he (polite), you (polite) | - | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
The negative perfect is formed by adding the prefix Template:Lang Template:Lang and the suffix Template:Lang Template:Lang to the affirmative perfect, though the suffix Template:Lang Template:Lang may be omitted in subordinate clauses introduced by a conjunction or relative marker.
Simple Imperfect
The simple imperfect form is used for the present and future in the main negative clause, and both affirmative and negative in subordinate clauses, including the relative clause. It is formed used using a combination of prefixes and suffixes.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
| Pronoun | Prefix and suffix | Type A Example Template:Lang | Type B Example Template:Lang | Type C Example Template:Lang |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | ə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (m. sg.) | tə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (f. sg.) | tə- -i | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| he | yə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| she | tə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| we | ənnə-/ən- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (pl.) | tə- -u | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| they, (s)he (polite), you (polite) | yə- -u | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
The negative imperfect is formed by adding the prefix Template:Lang Template:Lang and the suffix Template:Lang Template:Lang.
Compound Imperfect
The compound imperfect is used to express the present or future in the main clause and is formed by combining with simple imperfect with the verb Template:Lang Template:Lang.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
| Pronoun | Prefix and suffix | Example Template:Lang |
|---|---|---|
| I | ə- -allähu | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (m. sg.) | tə- -alläh | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (f. sg.) | tə- -iyalläš/-əyalläš | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| he | yə- -all | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| she | tə- -alläčč | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| we | ənnə-/ən- -allähu | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (pl.) | tə- -allaččəhu | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| they, (s)he (polite), you (polite) | yə- -allu | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
Jussive
The jussive is formed using the same prefixes and suffixes as the imperfect except for the 1st person singular, which uses Template:Lang Template:Lang. The 2nd person is only used in the negative jussive which formed using the prefix Template:Lang Template:Lang.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
| Pronoun | Prefix and suffix | Type A Example Template:Lang | Type B Example Template:Lang | Type C Example Template:Lang |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | lə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| he | yə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| she | tə- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| we | ənnə-/ən- | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| they, (s)he (polite) | yə- -u | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
Imperative
The imperative is used for orders and commands, and only has forms for the second person singular and plural. Negative imperatives are expressed using the negative jussive.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
| Pronoun | Suffix | Type A Example Template:Lang | Type B Example Template:Lang | Type C Example Template:Lang |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| you (m. sg.) | - | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (f. sg.) | -i | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
| you (pl.) | -u | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
Participles
Participles are derived from basic and derived stems. The participle forms of triradicals for type A is Template:Lang Template:Lang, for type B Template:Lang Template:Lang, and for type C Template:Lang Template:Lang .<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
Verbal Nouns
The verbal noun of a regular triradical is formed by prefixing Template:Lang Template:Lang to the form Template:Lang Template:Lang for type A, Template:Lang Template:Lang for type B, and Template:Lang Template:Lang for type C.<ref name="Leslau" />Template:Rp
Gerund
Along with the infinitive and the present participle, the gerund is one of three non-finite verb forms. The infinitive is a nominalized verb, the present participle expresses incomplete action, and the gerund expresses completed action, e.g. Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang 'Ali, having eaten lunch, went to the market'. There are several usages of the gerund depending on its morpho-syntactic features.
Verbal use
The gerund functions as the head of a subordinate clause (see the example above). There may be more than one gerund in one sentence. The gerund is used to form the following tense forms:
- present perfect Template:Lang Template:Lang 'He has said'.
- past perfect Template:Lang Template:Lang 'He had said'.
- possible perfect Template:Lang Template:Lang 'He (probably) has said'.
Adverbial use
The gerund can be used as an adverb: Template:Lang Template:Lang 'Sometimes he laughs'. (From Template:Lang 'to pass')
Adjectives
Adjectives are words or constructions used to qualify nouns. Adjectives in Amharic can be formed in several ways: they can be based on nominal patterns, or derived from nouns, verbs and other parts of speech. Adjectives can be nominalized by way of suffixing the nominal article (see Nouns above). Amharic has few primary adjectives. Some examples are Template:Lang 'kind, generous', Template:Lang 'mute, dumb, silent', Template:Lang 'yellow'.
Nominal patterns
- CäCCaC – Template:Lang 'heavy'; Template:Lang 'generous'
- CäC(C)iC – Template:Lang 'fine, subtle'; Template:Lang 'new'
- CäC(C)aCa – Template:Lang 'broken'; Template:Lang 'bent, wrinkled'
- CəC(C)əC – Template:Lang 'intelligent, smart'; Template:Lang 'hidden'
- CəC(C)uC – Template:Lang 'worthy, dignified'; Template:Lang 'black'; Template:Lang 'holy'
Denominalizing suffixes
- Template:Lang – Template:Lang 'powerful' (from Template:Lang 'power'); Template:Lang 'true' (from Template:Lang 'truth')
- Template:Lang – Template:Lang 'secular' (from Template:Lang 'world')
- Template:Lang – Template:Lang 'intelligent' (from Template:Lang 'heart'); Template:Lang 'earthly' (from Template:Lang 'earth'); Template:Lang 'religious' (from Template:Lang 'religion')
Prefix Template:Lang
- Template:Lang 'urban' (Template:Lit); Template:Lang 'Christian' (Template:Lit); Template:Lang 'wrong' (Template:Lit).
Adjective noun complex
The adjective and the noun together are called the 'adjective noun complex'. In Amharic, the adjective precedes the noun, with the verb last; e.g. Template:Lang 'a bad master'; Template:IPA (lit. big house he-built) 'he built a big house'.
If the adjective noun complex is definite, the definite article is suffixed to the adjective and not to the noun, e.g. Template:Lang (lit. big-def house) 'the big house'. In a possessive construction, the adjective takes the definite article, and the noun takes the pronominal possessive suffix, e.g. Template:Lang (lit. big-def house-my) Template:Gloss.
When enumerating adjectives using Template:Lang 'and', both adjectives take the definite article: Template:Lang (lit. pretty-def-and intelligent-def girl came) Template:Gloss. In the case of an indefinite plural adjective noun complex, the noun is plural and the adjective may be used in singular or in plural form. Thus, 'diligent students' can be rendered Template:Lang (lit. diligent student-PLUR) or Template:Lang (lit. diligent-PLUR student-PLUR).
Literature
Template:See also Template:Multiple image
Haddis Alemayehu (1910–2003), foreign minister and novelist, including author of Love to the Grave, considered the greatest novel in Ethiopian literature. The oldest surviving examples of written Amharic date back to the reigns of the 14th century Emperor of Ethiopia Amda Seyon I and his successors, who commissioned a number of poems known as "Template:Lang" (Soldier songs) glorifying them and their troops. There is a growing body of literature in Amharic in many genres. This literature includes government proclamations and records, educational books, religious material, novels, poetry, proverb collections, dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual), technical manuals, medical topics, etc. The Bible was first translated into Amharic by Abu Rumi in the early 19th century, but other translations of the Bible into Amharic have been done since. The most famous Amharic novel is Fiqir Iske Meqabir (transliterated various ways) by Haddis Alemayehu (1909–2003), translated into English by Sisay Ayenew with the title Love unto Crypt, published in 2005 (Template:ISBN). Others include Baalu Girma, Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin, Kebede Michael.
Rastafari movement
The word Rastafari comes from Template:Lang, the pre-regnal title of Haile Selassie, composed of the Amharic words Template:Lang (literally Template:Gloss, an Ethiopian title equivalent to duke) and Haile Selassie's pre-regnal name, Tafari.<ref name="ChangChen1998">Template:Cite book</ref>
Many Rastafarians learn Amharic as a second language, as they consider it to be sacred. After Haile Selassie's 1966 visit to Jamaica, study circles in Amharic were organized in Jamaica as part of the ongoing exploration of Pan-African identity and culture.<ref>Bernard Collins (The Abyssinians) Interview Template:Webarchive. Published 4 November 2011 by Jah Rebel. Retrieved 4 May 2013.</ref> Various reggae artists in the 1970s, including Ras Michael, Lincoln Thompson and Misty in Roots, have sung in Amharic, thus bringing the language to a wider audience. The Abyssinians, a reggae group, have also used Amharic, most notably in the song "Satta Massagana". The title was believed to mean Template:Gloss; however, this phrase means Template:Gloss or Template:Gloss, as Template:Lang means Template:Gloss, and Template:Lang Template:Gloss. The correct way to say Template:Gloss in Amharic is one word, Template:Lang. The word Template:Lang has become a common expression in the Rastafari dialect of English, Iyaric, meaning Template:Gloss.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Software
Amharic is supported on most major Linux distributions, including Fedora and Ubuntu. Amharic script is included in Unicode, in the Ethiopic block (U+1200 – U+137F). Nyala font is included on Windows 7 (see YouTube video)<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> and Vista (Amharic Language Interface Pack)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to display and edit using the Amharic Script. In February 2010, Microsoft released its Windows Vista operating system in Amharic, enabling Amharic speakers to use its operating system in their language.
Google added Amharic to its Language Tools,Template:When<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which allows typing Amharic script online without an Amharic keyboard. Since 2004 Wikipedia has had an Amharic-language Wiki that uses Ethiopic script. There has been some work on building tools for information retrieval in Amharic with some success even before the recent advances in neural processing.<ref>Atelach Alemu Argaw, Lars Asker, Rickard Cöster, and Jussi Karlgren. 2004. "Dictionary-based Amharic–English information retrieval". Cross-Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF 2004). Bath.</ref><ref>AA Argaw, L Asker, R Cöster, J Karlgren, M Sahlgren. 2005. "Dictionary-based Amharic-French information retrieval." Cross-Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF 2005). Vienna.</ref><ref>Yeshambel, Tilahun, Josiane Mothe, and Yaregal Assabie. "Amharic document representation for adhoc retrieval." In KDIR 2020. 2020.</ref><ref>Yeshambel, Tilahun, Josiane Mothe, and Yaregal Assabie. "Amharic adhoc information retrieval system based on morphological features." Applied Sciences 12, no. 3 (2022): 1294.</ref>
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Grammar
- Ludolf, Hiob (1698). Grammatica Linguæ Amharicæ. Frankfort.
- Template:Cite book [rewritten version of 'A modern grammar of spoken Amharic', 1941]
- Template:Cite book
- Afevork Ghevre Jesus (1911). Il verbo amarico. Roma.
- Amsalu Aklilu & Demissie Manahlot (1990). T'iru ye'Amarinnya Dirset 'Indet Yale New! (An Amharic grammar, in Amharic)
- Anbessa Teferra and Grover Hudson (2007). Essentials of Amharic. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
- Appleyard, David (1994). Colloquial Amharic. Routledge Template:ISBN
- Template:Cite book
- Baye Yimam (2007). Amharic Grammar. Second Edition. Addis Ababa University. Ethiopia.
- Bender, M. Lionel. (1974) "Phoneme frequencies in Amharic". Journal of Ethiopian Studies 12.1:19–24
- Bender, M. Lionel and Hailu Fulass (1978). Amharic verb morphology. (Committee on Ethiopian Studies, monograph 7.) East Lansing: African Studies Center, Michigan State University.
- Bennet, M. E. (1978). Stratificational Approaches to Amharic Phonology. PhD thesis, Ann Arbor: Michigan State University.
- Cohen, Marcel (1936). Traité de langue amharique. Paris: Institut d'Ethnographie.
- Cohen, Marcel (1939). Nouvelles études d'éthiopien merdional. Paris: Champion.
- Dawkins, C. H. (¹1960, ²1969). The Fundamentals of Amharic. Addis Ababa.
- Kapeliuk, Olga (1988). Nominalization in Amharic. Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden. Template:ISBN
- Kapeliuk, Olga (1994). Syntax of the noun in Amharic. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Template:ISBN.
- Łykowska, Laura (1998). Gramatyka jezyka amharskiego Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Template:ISBN
- Leslau, Wolf (1995). Reference Grammar of Amharic. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. Template:ISBN
- Praetorius, Franz (1879). Die amharische Sprache. Halle: Verlag der Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses.
Dictionaries
- Abbadie, Antoine d' (1881). Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña. Actes de la Société philologique, t. 10. Paris.
- Amsalu Aklilu (1973). English-Amharic dictionary. Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN
- Baeteman, J.-É. (1929). Dictionnaire amarigna-français. Diré-Daoua
- Gankin, É. B. (1969). Amxarsko-russkij slovar'. Pod redaktsiej Kassa Gäbrä Heywät. Moskva: Izdatel'stvo 'Sovetskaja Éntsiklopedija'.
- Guidi, I. (1901). Vocabolario amarico-italiano. Roma.
- Template:Cite book
- Guidi, I. (1940). Supplemento al Vocabolario amarico-italiano. (compilato con il concorso di Francesco Gallina ed Enrico Cerulli) Roma.
- Kane, Thomas L. (1990). Amharic–English Dictionary. (2 vols.) Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Template:ISBN
- Leslau, Wolf (1976). Concise Amharic Dictionary. (Reissue edition: 1996) Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Template:ISBN
- Täsämma Habtä Mikael Gəṣṣəw (1953 Ethiopian calendar). Käsate Bərhan Täsämma. Yä-Amarəñña mäzgäbä qalat. Addis Ababa: Artistic.
External links
Template:InterWiki Template:Wikivoyage Template:Wiktionarycat Template:Commons category Template:Wikibooks
- Amharic Keyboard online (and offline too): type 1 and type 2
- Fonts for Geʽez script:
- Noto Sans Ethiopic (multiple weights and widths)
- Noto Serif Ethiopic (multiple weights and widths)
- Abyssinica SIL (Character set support)
- Selected Annotated Bibliography on Amharic by Grover Hudson at the Michigan State University website.
- US State Dept. FSI Amharic course
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