Ejective consonant

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Template:Short description Template:More citations needed Template:IPA non-pulmonic consonants Template:IPA notice In phonetics, ejective consonants are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated, voiced and tenuis consonants. Some languages have glottalized sonorants with creaky voice that pattern with ejectives phonologically, and other languages have ejectives that pattern with implosives, which has led to phonologists positing a phonological class of glottalic consonants, which includes ejectives.

Description

In producing an ejective, the stylohyoid muscle and digastric muscle contract, causing the hyoid bone and the connected glottis to rise, and the forward articulation (at the velum in the case of Template:IPA) is held, raising air pressure greatly in the mouth so when the oral articulators separate, there is a dramatic burst of air.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> The Adam's apple may be seen moving when the sound is pronounced. In the languages in which they are more obvious, ejectives are often described as sounding like "spat" consonants, but ejectives are often quite weak. In some contexts and in some languages, they are easy to mistake for tenuis or even voiced stops.<ref name=Fallon>Fallon, 2002. The synchronic and diachronic phonology of ejectives</ref> These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called intermediates in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: Template:Angbr IPA = strongly ejective, Template:Angbr IPA = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language.

In strict, technical terms, ejectives are glottalic egressive consonants. The most common ejective is Template:IPA even if it is more difficult to produce than other ejectives like Template:IPA or Template:IPA because the auditory distinction between Template:IPA and Template:IPA is greater than with other ejectives and voiceless consonants of the same place of articulation.<ref name="ReferenceA">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> In proportion to the frequency of uvular consonants, Template:IPA is even more common, as would be expected from the very small oral cavity used to pronounce a voiceless uvular stop.Template:Citation needed Template:IPA, on the other hand, is quite rare. That is the opposite pattern to what is found in the implosive consonants, in which the bilabial is common and the velar is rare.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Ejective fricatives are rare for presumably the same reason: with the air escaping from the mouth while the pressure is being raised, like inflating a leaky bicycle tire, it is harder to distinguish the resulting sound as salient as a Template:IPA.

Occurrence

Ejectives occur in about 20% of the world's languages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Ejectives that phonemically contrast with pulmonic consonants occur in about 15% of languages around the world. The occurrence of ejectives often correlates to languages in mountainous regions such as the Caucasus which forms an island of ejective languages. They are also found frequently in the East African Rift and the South African Plateau (see Geography of Africa). In the Americas, they are extremely common in the North American Cordillera. They also frequently occur throughout the Andes and Maya Mountains. Elsewhere, they are rare.

Language families that distinguish ejective consonants include:

According to the glottalic theory, the Proto-Indo-European language had a series of ejectives (or, in some versions, implosives), but no extant Indo-European language has retained them.Template:Efn Ejectives are found today in Ossetian and some Armenian dialects only because of influence of the nearby Northeast Caucasian and/or Kartvelian language families.

It had once been predicted that ejectives and implosives would not be found in the same languageTemplate:Citation needed but both have been found phonemically at several points of articulation in Nilo-Saharan languages (Gumuz, Me'en, and T'wampa), Mayan language (Yucatec), and the Oto-Manguean Mazahua. Nguni languages, such as Zulu have an implosive b alongside a series of allophonically ejective stops. Dahalo of Kenya, has ejectives, implosives, and click consonants.

Non-contrastively, ejectives are found in many varieties of British English, usually replacing word-final fortis plosives in utterance-final or emphatic contexts.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Types

Almost all ejective consonants in the world's languages are stops or affricates, and all ejective consonants are obstruents. Template:IPA is the most common ejective, and Template:IPA is common among languages with uvulars, Template:IPA less so, and Template:IPA is uncommon. Among affricates, Template:IPA are all quite common, and Template:IPA and Template:IPA are not unusual (Template:IPA is particularly common among the Khoisan languages, where it is the ejective equivalent of Template:IPA).

Attested ejective consonants<ref>Bickford & Floyd (2006) Articulatory Phonetics, Table 25.1, augmented by sources at the articles on individual consonants</ref>
(excluding ejective clicks and secondary articulations)
Bilabial Labio-
dental 		Dental Alveolar Labial-
alveolar 		Post-
alveolar 		Retroflex Alveolo-
palatal 		Palatal Velar Uvular
Stop
(voiced) 		Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA linkTemplate:Efn Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA Template:IPA
Affricate
(voiced) 		Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA Template:IPA
Fricative Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Lateral affricate Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA) Template:IPA link (Template:IPA)
Lateral fricative Template:IPA link
Trill (theoretical)
Nasal (theoretical)

A few languages have ejective fricatives. In some dialects of Hausa, the standard affricate Template:IPA is a fricative Template:IPA; Ubykh (Northwest Caucasian, now extinct) had an ejective lateral fricative Template:IPA; and the related Kabardian also has ejective labiodental and alveolopalatal fricatives, Template:IPA. Tlingit is an extreme case, with ejective alveolar, lateral, velar, and uvular fricatives, Template:IPA. Upper Necaxa Totonac is unusual and perhaps unique in that it has ejective fricatives (alveolar, lateral, and postalveolar Template:IPA) but lacks any ejective stop or affricate (Beck 2006). Other languages with ejective fricatives are Yuchi, which some sources analyze as having Template:IPA (but not the analysis of the Wikipedia article), Keres dialects, with Template:IPA, Template:Citation needed and Lakota, with Template:IPA .Template:Citation needed Amharic is interpreted by many as having an ejective fricative Template:IPA, at least historically, but it has been also analyzed as now being a sociolinguistic variant (Takkele Taddese 1992).

An ejective retroflex stop Template:IPA is rare. It has been reported from Yawelmani and other Yokuts languages, Tolowa, and Gwich'in.

Template:AnchorBecause the complete closing of the glottis required to form an ejective makes voicing impossible, the allophonic voicing of ejective phonemes causes them to lose their glottalization; this occurs in Blin (modal voice) and Kabardian (creaky voice). A similar historical sound change also occurred in Veinakh and Lezgic in the Caucasus, and it has been postulated by the glottalic theory for Indo-European.<ref name=Fallon/> Some Khoisan languages have voiced ejective stops and voiced ejective clicks; however, they actually contain mixed voicing, and the ejective release is voiceless.

Template:Vanchors aren't attested in any language, even allophonically. An ejective Template:IPA would necessarily be voiceless,<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed., p 700.</ref> but the vibration of the trill, combined with a lack of the intense voiceless airflow of Template:IPA, gives an impression like that of voicing. Similarly, ejective nasals such as Template:IPA (also necessarily voiceless) are possible.<ref>Barker, M. A. R. (1963a).</ref>Template:Full citation needed<ref>Heselwood (2013: 148)</ref>Template:Full citation needed (An apostrophe is commonly seen with r, l and nasals, but that is Americanist phonetic notation for a glottalized consonant and does not indicate an ejective.)

Other ejective sonorants are not known to occur. When sonorants are transcribed with an apostrophe in the literature as if they were ejective, they actually involve a different airstream mechanism: they are glottalized consonants and vowels whose glottalization partially or fully interrupts an otherwise normal voiced pulmonic airstream, somewhat like English uh-uh (either vocalic or nasal) pronounced as a single sound. Often the constriction of the larynx causes it to rise in the vocal tract, but this is individual variation and not the initiator of the airflow. Such sounds generally remain voiced.<ref>Esling, John H.; Moisik, Scott R.; Benner, Allison; Crevier-Buchman, Lise (2019). Voice Quality: The Laryngeal Articulator Model. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

Yeyi has a set of prenasalized ejectives like /ⁿtʼ, ᵑkʼ, ⁿtsʼ/.

Orthography

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ejectives are indicated with a "modifier letter apostrophe" Template:Angbr, as in this article. A reversed apostrophe is sometimes used to represent light aspiration, as in Armenian linguistics Template:Angbr IPA; this usage is obsolete in the IPA. In other transcription traditions (such as many romanisations of Russian, where it is transliterating the soft sign), the apostrophe represents palatalization: Template:Angbr IPA = IPA Template:Angbr IPA. In some Americanist traditions, an apostrophe indicates weak ejection and an exclamation mark strong ejection: Template:Angbr IPA. In the IPA, the distinction might be written Template:Angbr IPA, but it seems that no language distinguishes degrees of ejection. Transcriptions of the Caucasian languages often utilize combining dots above or below a letter to indicate an ejective.

In alphabets using the Latin script, an IPA-like apostrophe for ejective consonants is common. However, there are other conventions. In Hausa, the hooked letter ƙ is used for Template:IPA. In Zulu and Xhosa, whose ejection is variable between speakers, plain consonant letters are used: p t k ts tsh kr for Template:IPA. In some conventions for Haida and Hadza, double letters are used: tt kk qq ttl tts for Template:IPA (Haida) and zz jj dl gg for Template:IPA (Hadza).

List

Stops

Affricates

Fricatives

Clicks

Template:IPA
Template:IPA
Template:IPA ~ Template:IPA ~ Template:IPA
Template:IPA ~ Template:IPA ~ Template:IPA

Hypothesis

A pattern can be observed wherein ejectives correlate geographically with mountainous regions. Template:Harvcoltxt argues that the geographic correlation between languages with ejectives and mountainous terrains is because of decreased air pressure making ejectives easier to produce, as well as the way ejectives help to reduce water vapor loss. The argument has been criticized as being based on a spurious correlation.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

Bibliography

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