Implosive consonant

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Template:Short description Template:IPA non-pulmonic consonants Template:IPA notice Implosive consonants are a group of stop consonants (and possibly also some affricates) with a mixed glottalic ingressive and pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> That is, the airstream is controlled by moving the glottis downward in addition to expelling air from the lungs. Therefore, unlike the purely glottalic ejective consonants, implosives can be modified by phonation. Contrastive implosives are found in approximately 13%<ref>Maddieson, Ian. 2008. Glottalized Consonants. In: Haspelmath, Martin & Dryer, Matthew S. & Gil, David & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, chapter 7. Accessed on 2008-03-28 via Wals info.</ref> of the world's languages.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, implosives are indicated by modifying the top of a letter (voiced stop) with a rightward-facing hook: bilabial Template:Angbr IPA, alveolar Template:Angbr IPA, retroflex Template:Angbr IPA (this letter is 'implicit' in the IPA), palatal Template:Angbr IPA, velar Template:Angbr IPA and uvular Template:Angbr IPA.

Articulation

During the occlusion of the stop, pulling the glottis downward rarefies the air in the vocal tract. The stop is then released. In languages whose implosives are particularly salient, that may result in air rushing into the mouth before it flows out again with the next vowel. To take in air sharply in that way is to implode a sound.<ref>"Implode" (2. [with obj.] [phonetic terminology]: utter or pronounce (a consonant) with a sharp intake of air.) New Oxford American Dictionary 3rd ed., 2010</ref>

However, probably more typically, there is no movement of air at all, which contrasts with the burst of the pulmonary plosives. This is the case with many of the Kru languages, for example. That means that implosives are phonetically sonorants (not obstruents) as the concept of sonorant is usually defined. However, implosives can phonologically pattern as both; that is, they may be phonological sonorants or obstruents depending on the language.

George N. Clements (2002) actually proposes that implosives are phonologically neither obstruents nor sonorants.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The vast majority of implosive consonants are voiced, so the glottis is only partially closed. Because the airflow required for voicing reduces the vacuum being created in the mouth, implosives are easiest to make with a large oral cavity.Template:Citation needed

Types

Implosives are most often voiced stops, occasionally voiceless stops. Individual tokens of glottalized sonorants (nasals, trills, laterals, etc.) may also be pronounced with a lowering of the glottis by some individuals, occasionally to the extent that they are noticeably implosive, but no language is known where implosion is a general characteristic of such sounds.<ref>Esling, John H.; Moisik, Scott R.; Benner, Allison; Crevier-Buchman, Lise (2019). Voice Quality: The Laryngeal Articulator Model. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

Attested implosive consonants<ref>Bickford & Floyd (2006) Articulatory Phonetics, Table 28.1, augmented by sources at the articles on individual consonants</ref>
(excluding secondary phonations and articulations)
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Labial–
velar 		Uvular
Voiceless Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA Template:IPA link
Voiced Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link

A labial–alveolar implosive Template:IPA has also been described.<ref>Bickford & Floyd (2006) Articulatory Phonetics, Table 33.1</ref>

There are no IPA symbols for implosive fricatives, and no confirmed cases of implosive fricatives or affricates. Implosive affricates are occasionally reported, but further investigation typically reveals that such sounds are either stops or not implosive. For example, the Swahili j has an implosive allophone, but the distinction is pulmonic affricate Template:IPA vs implosive stop Template:IPA.<ref name="Swahhili">Contini-Morava, Ellen. 1997. Swahili Phonology. In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa 2, 841–860. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.</ref> Similarly, implosive Template:IPA has been reported from Roglai, but it has also been analyzed as Template:IPA,<ref>Lee Ernest. 1966. Proto-Chamic phonologic word and vocabulary. PhD dissertation, Indiana University at Bloomington.</ref> and the implosive affricates reported from Gitxsan turn out to be lenis ejectives that are sometimes perceived as voiced.<ref>Gitxsan "does not have voiced implosive stops; rather, it has lax glottalized stops that display a creaky voice quality at the margin of the vowel in pretonic (and syllable-final) environments." — Bruce Rigsby & John Ingram (1990) "Obstruent Voicing and Glottalic Obstruents in Gitksan". International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 251–263.</ref>

Voiced implosives

The attested voiced implosive stops are the following:

Voiceless implosives

Consonants variously called "voiceless implosives," "implosives with glottal closure,"<ref name="SOWL">Template:SOWL</ref> or "reverse ejectives" involve a slightly different airstream mechanism, purely glottalic ingressive.<ref name=":0" /> The glottis is closed so no pulmonic airstream is possible. The IPA once dedicated the letters Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA to such sounds. These were withdrawn in 1993 and replaced with a voiceless diacritic, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, though Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA remain in Serer orthography. Some authors disagree with the analysis implied by the IPA voiceless diacritic and retain the dedicated voiceless letters, or, occasionally, suggest transcribing them instead as ingressive ejectives Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA. The IPA had also suggested the possibility of a superscript left pointer, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, Template:Angbr IPA, which might also be used for fricatives, but this was not approved by the membership.

The attested voiceless implosive stops are:

Occurrence

In the world's languages, the occurrence of implosives shows a strong cline from front to back points of articulation. Bilabial Template:IPA is the most common implosive. It is very rarely lacking in the inventory of languages which have implosive stops. On the other hand, implosives with a back articulation (such as velar Template:IPA) occur much less frequently; apart from a few exceptions, the presence of the velar implosive Template:IPA goes along with the presence of implosives further forward.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> One of the few languages with a farther back implosive (specifically the alveolar one Template:IPA), and without the bilabial implosive, is Yali, a Dani language spoken on the Indonesian side of New Guinea.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Implosives are widespread among the languages of Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia and are found in a few languages of the Amazon Basin. They are rarely reported elsewhere but occur in scattered languages such as the Mayan languages in North America, and Saraiki and Sindhi in the Indian subcontinent. They appear to be entirely absent as phonemes from Europe and northern Asia and from Australia, even from the Australian ceremonial language Damin, which uses every other possible airstream mechanism besides percussives. However, Alpher (1977) reports that the Nhangu language of Australia may actually contain implosives, though more research is needed to determine the true nature of these sounds. Implosives may occasionally occur phonetically in some European languages: For instance, in some northern dialects of Ingrian, intervocalic bilabial stops may be realised as the implosive Template:IPA or Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Fully voiced stops are slightly implosive in a number of other languages, but this is not often described explicitly if there is no contrast with modal-voiced plosives. This situation occurs from Maidu to Thai to many Bantu languages, including Swahili.

Sindhi and Saraiki have an unusually large number of contrastive implosives, with Template:IPA.<ref name="SOWL"/><ref>Swahili has a similar Template:IPA, without contrasting with voiced pulmonic stops, unlike in Sindhi.</ref> Although Sindhi has a dental–retroflex distinction in its plosives, with Template:IPA, the contrast is neutralized in the implosives. A contrastive retroflex implosive Template:IPA may also occur in Ngad'a, a language spoken in Flores, Indonesia,<ref>Djawanai, Stephanus. (1977). A description of the basic phonology of Nga'da and the treatment of borrowings. NUSA linguistic studies in Indonesian and languages in Indonesia, 5, 10-18</ref> and occurs in Wadiyara Koli, a language spoken in India and Pakistan which in total has Template:IPA.<ref name="Zubair">Template:Cite thesis</ref>

More examples can be found in the articles on individual implosives.

Voiceless implosives are quite rare, but are found in languages as varied as the Owere dialect of Igbo in Nigeria (Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink), Krongo in Sudan, the Uzere dialect of Isoko, the closely related Lendu and Ngiti languages in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Serer in Senegal (Template:IPA), and some dialects of the Poqomchi’ and Quiche languages in Guatemala (Template:IPA). Owere Igbo has a seven-way contrast among bilabial stops, Template:IPA, and its alveolar stops are similar. The voiceless velar implosive Template:IPAblink occurs marginally in Uspantek<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Template:IPA occurs in Mam, Kaqchikel, and Uspantek.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Lendu has been claimed to have voiceless Template:IPA, but they may actually be creaky-voiced implosives.<ref name="SOWL" /> The voiceless labial–velar implosive Template:IPA also may occur in Central Igbo.<ref name=":02">Bickford & Floyd (2006) Articulatory Phonetics</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>

Some English speakers use a voiceless velar implosive Template:IPA to imitate the "glug-glug" sound of liquid being poured from a bottle, but others use a voiced implosive Template:IPA.<ref>Pike, Phonetics, 1943:40</ref>

References

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Bibliography

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