Gemination

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In phonetics and phonology, gemination (Template:IPAc-en; from Latin Template:Lang 'doubling', itself from gemini 'twins'<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>), or consonant lengthening, is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It is distinct from stress. Gemination is represented in many writing systems by a doubled letter and is often perceived as a doubling of the consonant.<ref name="ham">William Ham, Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Geminate Timing, p. 1–18</ref> Some phonological theories use 'doubling' as a synonym for gemination, while others describe two distinct phenomena.<ref name="ham"/>

Consonant length is a distinctive feature in certain languages, such as Japanese. Other languages, such as Modern Greek, do not have word-internal phonemic consonant geminates.

Consonant gemination and vowel length are independent in languages like Arabic, Japanese, Hungarian, Malayalam, and Finnish; however, in languages like Italian, Norwegian, and Swedish, vowel length and consonant length are interdependent. For example, in Norwegian and Swedish, a geminated consonant is always preceded by a short vowel, while an ungeminated consonant is preceded by a long vowel. In Italian, a geminate is always preceded by a short vowel, but a long vowel precedes a short consonant only if the vowel is stressed.

Phonetics

Lengthened fricatives, nasals, laterals, approximants and trills are simply prolonged. In lengthened stops, the obstruction of the airway is prolonged, which delays release, and the closure is lengthened. That is, Template:IPA is pronounced Template:IPA, not *Template:IPA. In affricates, it is also the closure that is lengthened, not the fricative release. That is, Template:IPA is pronounced Template:IPA, not *Template:IPA.<ref>Template:SOWL</ref><ref>Joshua Wilbur (2014) A Grammar of Pite Saami, p 47</ref>

In terms of consonant duration, Berber and Finnish are reported to have a 3-to-1 ratio,<ref name="Khattab2014" /> compared with around 2-to-1 (or lower) in Japanese,<ref name="Aoyama2002">Template:Cite journal (URL is author's "near final version" draft)</ref> Italian, and Turkish.<ref name="Khattab2014">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Phonology

Gemination of consonants is distinctive in some languages and then is subject to various phonological constraints that depend on the language.

In some languages, like Italian, Swedish, Faroese, Icelandic, and Luganda, consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. A short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes a long consonant or a consonant cluster, and a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant. In Classical Arabic, a long vowel was lengthened even more before permanently-geminate consonants.

In other languages, such as Finnish, consonant length and vowel length are independent of each other. In Finnish, both are phonemic; Template:Lang Template:IPA 'back', Template:Lang Template:IPA 'fireplace' and Template:Lang Template:IPA 'burden' are different, unrelated words. Finnish consonant length is also affected by consonant gradation. Another important phenomenon is sandhi, which produces long consonants at word boundaries when there is an archiphonemic glottal stop Template:IPA > Template:Lang 'take it (imperative)!'.

In addition, in some Finnish compound words, if the initial word ends in an Template:Lang, the initial consonant of the following word is geminated: Template:Lang 'trash bag' Template:IPA, Template:Lang 'welcome' Template:IPA. In certain cases, a Template:Lang after a Template:Lang is geminated by most people: Template:Lang 'screw' Template:IPA, Template:Lang 'baby' Template:IPA. In the Tampere dialect, if a word receives gemination of Template:Lang after Template:Lang, the Template:Lang is often deleted (Template:Lang Template:IPA, Template:Lang Template:IPA), and Template:Lang 'Saturday', for example, receives a medial Template:Lang Template:IPA, which can in turn lead to deletion of Template:Lang (Template:IPA).

Distinctive consonant length is usually restricted to certain consonants and environments. There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among those that do are Pattani Malay, Chuukese, Moroccan Arabic, a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan, as well as many High Alemannic German dialects, such as that of Thurgovia. Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda, also have initial consonant length: it is very common in Luganda and indicates certain grammatical features. In colloquial Finnish and Italian, long consonants occur in specific instances as sandhi phenomena.

The difference between singleton and geminate consonants varies within and across languages. Sonorants show more distinct geminate-to-singleton ratios while sibilants have less distinct ratios. The bilabial and alveolar geminates are generally longer than velar ones.<ref name="Khattab2014" />

The reverse of gemination reduces a long consonant to a short one, which is called degemination. It is a pattern in Baltic-Finnic consonant gradation that the strong grade (often the nominative) form of the word is degeminated into a weak grade (often all the other cases) form of the word: Template:Lang > Template:Lang (burden, of the burden). As a historical restructuring at the phonemic level, word-internal long consonants degeminated in Western Romance languages: e.g. Spanish /ˈboka/ 'mouth' vs. Italian /ˈbokka/, both of which evolved from Latin /ˈbukka/.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Examples

Afroasiatic languages

Arabic

Written Arabic indicates gemination with a diacritic ([[Arabic diacritics|Template:Transliteration]]) shaped like a lowercase Greek omega or a rounded Latin w, called the Template:Lang [[shadda|Template:Transliteration]]: Template:Lang. Written above the consonant that is to be doubled, the Template:Transliteration is often used to disambiguate words that differ only in the doubling of a consonant where the word intended is not clear from the context. For example, in Arabic, Form I verbs and Form II verbs differ only in the doubling of the middle consonant of the triliteral root in the latter form, e. g., Template:Lang Template:Transliteration (with full diacritics: Template:Lang) is a Form I verb meaning to study, whereas Template:Lang Template:Transliteration (with full diacritics: Template:Lang) is the corresponding Form II verb, with the middle Template:Transliteration consonant doubled, meaning to teach.

Berber

In Berber, each consonant has a geminate counterpart, and gemination is lexically contrastive. The distinction between single and geminate consonants is attested in medial position as well as in absolute initial and final positions.

In addition to lexical geminates, Berber also has phonologically-derived and morphologically-derived geminates. Phonological alternations can surface by concatenation (e.g., Template:IPA 'give him two!') or by complete assimilation (e.g. Template:IPA Template:IPA 'he will touch you'). Morphological alternations include imperfective gemination, with some Berber verbs forming their imperfective stem by geminating one consonant in their perfective stem (e.g., Template:IPA 'go! PF', Template:IPA 'go! IMPF'), as well as quantity alternations between singular and plural forms (e.g., Template:IPA 'hand', Template:IPA 'hands').

Austronesian languages

Austronesian languages in the Philippines, Micronesia, and Sulawesi are known to have geminate consonants.<ref name="Blust2013">Blust, Robert. (2013). The Austronesian Languages (Rev. ed.). Australian National University.</ref>

Kavalan

The Formosan language Kavalan makes use of gemination to mark intensity, as in Template:Lang 'bad' vs. Template:Lang 'very bad'.<ref name="Blust2013" />

Malay dialects

Word-initial gemination occurs in various Malay dialects, particularly those found on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula such as Kelantan-Pattani Malay and Terengganu Malay.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Gemination in these dialects of Malay occurs for various purposes such as:

Tuvaluan

The Polynesian language Tuvaluan allows for word-initial geminates, such as Template:Lang 'overcooked'.<ref name="Jack">Template:Cite book</ref>

Indo-European languages

English

In English phonology, consonant length is not distinctive within root words. For instance, baggage is pronounced Template:IPAc-en, not Template:IPA. However, phonetic gemination does occur marginally.

Gemination is found across words and across morphemes when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same fricative, nasal, or stop.<ref name="benhedia">Template:Cite book</ref>

For instance:

With affricates, however, this does not occur. For instance:

In most instances, the absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. The following minimal pairs represent examples where the doubling does affect the meaning in most accents:

Note that whenever Template:IPA appears (in brackets), non-rhotic dialects of English don't have the gemination, but rather lengthen the preceding vowel.

In some dialects gemination is also found for some words when the suffix -ly follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in:

but not

In some varieties of Welsh English, the process takes place indiscriminately between vowels, e.g. in money Template:IPA but it also applies with graphemic duplication (thus, orthographically dictated), e.g. butter Template:IPA<ref>Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, p. 335</ref>

French

In French, gemination is usually not phonologically relevant and therefore does not allow words to be distinguished: it mostly corresponds to an accent of insistence (Template:Lang realised Template:IPA), or meets hyper-correction criteria: one "corrects" one's pronunciation, despite the usual phonology, to be closer to a realization that one imagines to be more correct: thus, the word illusion is sometimes pronounced Template:IPA by influence of the spelling.

However, gemination is contrastive in a few cases. Some words, such as netteté, and verrerie, are generally pronounced with a silent e following the double consonant, resulting in a pronunciation that reflects the gemination. Statements such as Template:Lang ('she said') ~ Template:Lang ('she said it') Template:IPA ~ Template:IPA can commonly be distinguished by gemination. In a more sustained pronunciation, gemination distinguishes the conditional (and possibly the future tense) from the imperfect: Template:Lang 'would run' Template:IPA vs. Template:Lang 'ran' Template:IPA; or the indicative from the subjunctive: Template:Lang 'we believe' Template:IPA vs. Template:Lang 'we believed' Template:IPA.

Greek

Template:See also In Ancient Greek, consonant length was distinctive, e.g., Template:Lang Template:IPA 'I am of interest' vs. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'I am going to'. The distinction has been lost in the standard and most other varieties, with the exception of Cypriot (where it might carry over from Ancient Greek or arise from a number of synchronic and diachronic assimilatory processes, or even spontaneously), some varieties of the southeastern Aegean, and Italy.

Hindustani

Gemination is common in both Hindi and Urdu. It does not occur after long vowels and is found in words of both Indic and Arabic origin, but not in those of Persian origin. In Urdu, gemination is represented by the Shadda diacritic, which is usually omitted from writings, and mainly written to clear ambiguity. In Hindi, gemination is represented by doubling the geminated consonant, enjoined with the Virama diacritic.

Transliteration Hindi Urdu Meaning Etymology
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'leaf' Sanskrit
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'father' Arabic
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'anti-christ'
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'box' Sanskrit
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'heaven' Arabic
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'mattress' Sanskrit
Aspirated consonants

Gemination of aspirated consonants in Hindi are formed by combining the corresponding non-aspirated consonant followed by its aspirated counterpart. In vocalised Urdu, the shadda is placed on the unaspirated consonant followed by the short vowel diacritic, followed by the do-cashmī hē, which aspirates the preceding consonant. There are few examples where an aspirated consonant is truly doubled.

Examples of aspirated gemination
Transliteration Hindi Urdu Meaning
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'stone'
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang brown spread on Template:Transliteration
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'pit'
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang Template:Lang 'fly'

Italian

Template:See also Italian is notable among the Romance languages for its extensive geminated consonants. In Standard Italian, word-internal geminates are usually written with two consonants, and geminates are distinctive.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> For example, Template:Lang, meaning 'he/she drank', is phonemically Template:IPA and pronounced Template:IPA, while Template:Lang ('he/she drinks/is drinking') is Template:IPA, pronounced Template:IPA. Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (as in Template:Lang) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (as in Template:Lang). In varieties with post-vocalic weakening of some consonants (e.g. Template:IPA → Template:IPA 'reason'), geminates are not affected (Template:IPA → Template:IPA 'May').

Double or long consonants occur not only within words but also at word boundaries, and they are then pronounced but not necessarily written: Template:Lang + Template:Lang = Template:Lang ('who knows') Template:IPA and Template:Lang ('I am going home') Template:IPA. All consonants except Template:IPAslink can be geminated. This word-initial gemination is triggered either lexically by the item preceding the lengthening consonant (e.g. by preposition Template:Lang 'to, at' in Template:IPA Template:Lang 'homeward' but not by definite article Template:Lang in Template:IPA Template:Lang 'the house'), or by any word-final stressed vowel ([[[:Template:IPA]]] Template:Lang 's/he spoke French' but [[[:Template:IPA]]] Template:Lang 'I speak French').

Latin

In Latin, consonant length was distinctive, as in Template:Lang 'old woman' vs. Template:Lang 'year'. Vowel length was also distinctive in Latin until about the fourth century, and was often reflected in the orthography with an apex. Geminates inherited from Latin still exist in Italian, in which Template:IPA Template:Lang and Template:IPA Template:Lang contrast with regard to Template:IPA and Template:IPA as in Latin. It has been almost completely lost in French and completely in Romanian. In West Iberian languages, former Latin geminate consonants often evolved to new phonemes, including some instances of nasal vowels in Portuguese and Old Galician as well as most cases of Template:IPA and Template:IPA in Spanish, but with the possible exception of [r] and [rː] in Spanish (caro 'expensive', carro 'car'; pero 'but, however', perro 'dog') phonetic length of consonants and vowels is no longer distinctive.

Nepali

In Nepali, all consonants have geminate counterparts except for Template:IPA. Geminates occur only medially.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Examples:

Norwegian

In Norwegian, gemination is indicated in writing by double consonants. Gemination often differentiates between unrelated words. As in Italian, Norwegian uses short vowels before doubled consonants and long vowels before single consonants. There are qualitative differences between short and long vowels:

Polish

Template:Disputed section A specific feature of Polish is the almost exclusive occurrence of true gemination. Doubled letters are pronounced with rearticulation as two separate sounds with short pause, this applies to both consonants and vowels. However, it is also possible to pronounce geminates as single sounds if this does not change the meaning. Geminates are typical 1,5-3 times longer than single tones.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Rearticutated geminates they have the same length as single. Vowels before or after geminates do not differ in length from typical ones.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Examples:

Consonant length is distinctive and sometimes is necessary to distinguish words:

Double consonants are common on morpheme borders where the initial or final sound of the suffix is the same as the final or initial sound of the stem (depending on the position of the suffix), after devoicing. Examples:


Punjabi

Punjabi is written in two scripts, namely, Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi. Both scripts indicate gemination through the uses of diacritics. In Gurmukhi the diacritic is called the [[ੱ|Template:Transliteration]] which is written before the geminated consonant and is mandatory. In contrast, the shadda, which is used to represent gemination in the Shahmukhi script, is not necessarily written, retaining the tradition of the original Arabic script and Persian language, where diacritics are usually omitted from writing, except to clear ambiguity, and is written above the geminated consonant. In the cases of aspirated consonants in the Shahmukhi script, the shadda remains on the consonant, not on the do-cashmī he.

Gemination is specially characteristic of Punjabi compared to other Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi-Urdu, where instead of the presence of consonant lengthening, the preceding vowel tends to be lengthened. Consonant length is distinctive in Punjabi, for example:

Singleton Geminated
IPA Gurmukhi Shahmukhi Transliteration Meaning IPA Gurmukhi Shahmukhi Transliteration Meaning
Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration 'ten' Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration 'tell' (imperative)
Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration<ref name=":0">In Gurmukhi, the final schwa is represented with a ਾ (ā), whereas in Shahmukhi, the final form of Template:Big (Gol he) can represent a schwa.</ref> 'aware of something' Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration<ref name=":0" /> 'leaf'
Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration 'truth' (liturgical) Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration 'seven'
Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration 'art' Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Nq Template:Transliteration 'alone'

Russian

In Russian, consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in Template:Lang Template:IPA 'bathtub') may occur in several situations.

Minimal pairs (or chronemes) exist, such as Template:Wikt-lang Template:IPA 'to hold' vs Template:Wikt-lang Template:IPA 'to support', and their conjugations, or Template:Wikt-lang Template:IPA 'length' vs Template:Wikt-lang Template:IPA 'long' adj. f.

</ref>

Spanish

There are phonetic geminate consonants in Caribbean Spanish due to the assimilation of /l/ and /ɾ/ in syllabic coda to the following consonant.<ref>Template:Cite journal 25, 465-497</ref> Examples of Cuban Spanish:

/l/ or /r/ + /f/ → [ff] a[ff]iler, hue[ff]ano (Sp. Template:Lang, Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /h/ → [ɦh] ana[ɦh]ésico, vi[ɦh]en (Sp. Template:Lang, Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /b/ → [bb] si[bb]a, cu[bb]a (Sp. Template:Lang or Template:Lang, Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /d/ → [dd] ce[dd]a, acue[dd]o (Sp. Template:Lang or Template:Lang, Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /g/ → [gg] pu[gg]a, la[gg]a (Sp. Template:Lang or Template:Lang, Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /m/ → [mm] ca[mm]a, a[mm]a (Sp. Template:Lang, Template:Lang or Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /n/ → [nn] pie[nn]a, ba[nn]eario (Sp. Template:Lang, Template:Lang)
/l/ or /r/ + /l/ → [ll] bu[ll]a, cha[ll]a (Sp. Template:Lang, Template:Lang)

Luganda

Luganda (a Bantu language) is unusual in that gemination can occur word-initially, as well as word-medially. For example, Template:Lang Template:IPA 'cat', Template:IPA Template:Lang 'grandfather' and Template:IPA Template:Lang 'madam' all begin with geminate consonants.

There are three consonants that cannot be geminated: Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA. Whenever morphological rules would geminate these consonants, Template:IPA and Template:IPA are prefixed with Template:IPA, and Template:IPA changes to Template:IPA. For example:

Japanese

Template:See also In Japanese, consonant length is distinctive (as is vowel length). Gemination in the syllabary is represented with the sokuon, a small Template:Lang:<ref name="Asano1994">Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Lang for hiragana in native words and Template:Lang for katakana in foreign words. For example, Template:Lang (Template:Lang, Template:Lang) means 'came; arrived', while Template:Lang (Template:Lang, Template:Lang) means 'cut; sliced'. With the influx of gairaigo ('foreign words') into Modern Japanese, voiced consonants have become able to geminate as well:<ref>Template:Citation, p. 538</ref> Template:Lang (Template:Lang) means '(computer) bug', and Template:Lang (Template:Lang) means 'bag'. Distinction between voiceless gemination and voiced gemination is visible in pairs of words such as Template:Lang (Template:Lang, meaning 'kit') and Template:Lang (Template:Lang, meaning 'kid'). In addition, in some variants of colloquial Modern Japanese, gemination may be applied to some adjectives and adverbs (regardless of voicing) in order to add emphasis: Template:Lang (Template:Lang, 'amazing') contrasts with Template:Lang (Template:Lang, 'really amazing'); Template:Lang (Template:Lang, Template:Lang, 'with all one's strength') contrasts with Template:Lang (Template:Lang, Template:Lang, 'really with all one's strength').

Turkic languages

Turkish

In Turkish gemination is indicated by two identical letters as in most languages that have phonemic gemination.

Loanwords originally ending with a phonemic geminated consonant are always written and pronounced without the ending gemination as in Arabic.

Although gemination is resurrected when the word takes a suffix.

Gemination also occurs when a suffix starting with a consonant comes after a word that ends with the same consonant.

Dravidian languages

Malayalam

In Malayalam, compounding is phonologically conditioned<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> called as sandhi and gemination occurs at word boundaries. Gemination sandhi is called dvitva sandhi or 'doubling sandhi'.

Consider following example:

Gemination also occurs in a single morpheme like Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) which has a different meaning from Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration).

Tamil

In Tamil, "otru" can occur when two words combine in a certain meaning. This otru is generally one of Template:Lang Template:IPA, ச் Template:IPA, த் Template:IPA and ப் Template:IPA, and occurs when one of these four consonants is the first letter of the second word. For example:

Gemination also occurs in nouns that end in Template:Lang Template:Transliteration and Template:Lang Template:Transliteration when they are part of a grammatical case. For example:

Gemination also occurs in a single morpheme like Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) which has a different meaning from Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration). More examples where words without and with gemination consonants have different meanings:

Uralic languages

Sámi languages

Many Sámi languages have gemination as a phonetic feature. The Proto-Sami language had as many as four different lengths, although there is only one living language where this is attested: certains dialect of Ume Sámi. Most varieties have merged them to two or three contrastive degrees of length.

Estonian

Estonian has three phonemic lengths; however, the third length is a suprasegmental feature, which is as much tonal patterning as a length distinction. It is traceable to allophony caused by now-deleted suffixes, for example half-long Template:Lang < *Template:Lang 'of the city' vs. overlong Template:Lang < *Template:Lang < *Template:Lang 'to the city'.

Finnish

Template:See also

Consonant length is phonemic in Finnish, for example Template:Lang Template:IPA ('fireplace', transcribed with the length sign Template:IPA or with a doubled letter Template:IPA) and Template:Lang Template:IPA ('back'). Consonant gemination occurs with simple consonants (Template:Lang : Template:Lang) and between syllables in the pattern (consonant)-vowel-sonorant-stop-stop-vowel (Template:Lang) but not generally in codas or with longer syllables. (This occurs in Sami languages and in the Finnish name Template:Lang, which is of Sami origin.) Sandhi often produces geminates.

Both consonant and vowel gemination are phonemic, and both occur independently, e.g. Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang (Karelian surname, 'paint', 'model', and 'secular').

In Standard Finnish, consonant gemination of Template:IPA exists only in interjections, new loan words and in the playful word hihhuli, with its origins in the 19th century, and derivatives of that word.

In many Finnish dialects there are also the following types of special gemination in connection with long vowels: the southwestern special gemination (Template:Lang), with lengthening of stops + shortening of long vowel, of the type Template:Lang < Template:Lang; the common gemination (Template:Lang), with lengthening of all consonants in short, stressed syllables, of the type Template:Lang > Template:Lang and its extension (which is strongest in the northwestern Savonian dialects); the eastern dialectal special gemination (Template:Lang), which is the same as the common gemination but also applies to unstressed syllables and certain clusters, of the types Template:Lang > Template:Lang and Template:Lang > Template:Lang.

Wagiman

In Wagiman, an indigenous Australian language, consonant length in stops is the primary phonetic feature that differentiates fortis and lenis stops. Wagiman does not have phonetic voice. Word-initial and word-final stops never contrast for length.

Writing

In written language, consonant length is often indicated by writing a consonant twice (ss, kk, pp, and so forth), but can also be indicated with a special symbol, such as the shadda in Arabic, the dagesh in Classical Hebrew, or the sokuon in Japanese.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, long consonants are normally written using the triangular colon Template:IPA, e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA ('feathers', 'pens', also a kind of pasta), though doubled letters are also used (especially for underlying phonemic forms, or in tone languages to facilitate diacritic marking).

Double letters that are not long consonants

Doubled orthographic consonants do not always indicate a long phonetic consonant.

  • In English, for example, the Template:IPA sound of running is not lengthened. Consonant digraphs are used in English to indicate the preceding vowel is a short (lax) vowel, while a single letter often allows a long (tense) vowel to occur. For example, tapping Template:IPA (from tap) has a short a Template:IPA, which is distinct from the diphthongal long a Template:IPA in taping Template:IPA (from tape).
  • In Standard Modern Greek, doubled orthographic consonants have no phonetic significance at all.
  • Hangul (the Korean alphabet) and its romanizations also use double consonants, but to indicate fortis articulation, not gemination.
  • In Klallam, a sequence of two Template:IPA sounds such as in a word like Template:IPA 'sleep' is not pronounced like a geminated stop with a long closure duration – rather the sequence is pronounced as a sequence of two individual sounds such that the first Template:IPA is released before the articulation of the second Template:IPA.
  • In the Old Icelandic orthography of the First Grammatical Treatise, geminates are indicated by small caps: ⟨ʙ⟩, ⟨ᴅ⟩, ⟨ꜰ⟩, ⟨ɢ⟩, ⟨ᴋ⟩, ⟨ʟ⟩, ⟨ᴍ⟩, ⟨ɴ⟩, ⟨ᴘ⟩, ⟨ʀ⟩, ⟨ꜱ⟩ and ⟨ᴛ⟩, whereas modern renditions of Old Norse designate geminates by two consecutive stops, i.e. ⟨bb⟩, ⟨ff⟩, ⟨gg⟩, ⟨kk⟩ ⟨ll⟩, ⟨mm⟩, ⟨nn⟩ ⟨pp⟩, ⟨rr⟩, ⟨ss⟩ and ⟨tt⟩, respectively.
  • In Proto-Basque notation, capital letters are employed to denote the fortis–lenis contrast, which manifests as a difference between geminate vs. ⟨L⟩ /lː/ vs. ⟨l⟩ /l/, ⟨N⟩ /nː/ vs. ⟨n⟩ /n/, but capitals might also denote voiceless vs. voiced (⟨T⟩ /t/ vs. ⟨d⟩ /d/, ⟨K⟩ /k/ vs. ⟨g⟩ /g/, no ⟨P⟩ exists in Mitxelena's reconstruction consonant system of Proto-Basque, only ⟨b⟩) or affricate vs. sibilant distinction (⟨TZ⟩ /t̻s̻/ vs. ⟨z⟩ /s̻/, ⟨TS⟩ /t̺s̺/ vs. ⟨s⟩ /s̺/), or trill ⟨R⟩ /r/ vs. tap ⟨r⟩ /ɾ/.

See also

References

Template:Reflist Template:Spoken Wikipedia

Template:Suprasegmentals

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