E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (video game)

Template:Short description Template:For Template:Use mdy dates Template:Main other{{#invoke:infobox|infoboxTemplate | child = | subbox = | bodyclass = ib-video-game hproduct {{#ifeq:|yes|collapsible {{#if:|{{{state}}}|autocollapse}}}} | templatestyles = Infobox video game/styles.css | aboveclass = fn | italic title =

| above = E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial

| image = {{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=Etvideogamecover.jpg|sizedefault=frameless|upright=1|alt=Artwork of a grey, vertical rectangular box. The top half reads "Atari 2600. E.T.* The Extra-Terrestrial". The bottom half displays a drawn image of a brown alien with a large head and long neck beside a young boy in a red, hooded jacket.|border=|suppressplaceholder=yes}}

| caption = {{#if:Etvideogamecover.jpg|Atari's silver label box art featuring the titular character and his friend Elliot, two of the main characters from the original film|Atari's silver label box art featuring the titular character and his friend Elliot, two of the main characters from the original film}}

| label2 = Developer Template:Pluralize from text | data2 = Atari, Inc.

| label3 = Publisher Template:Pluralize from text | data3 = Atari, Inc.

| label4 = Director Template:Pluralize from text | data4 = Template:If first display both

| label5 = Producer Template:Pluralize from text | data5 = Template:If first display both

| label6 = Designer Template:Pluralize from text | data6 = Howard Scott Warshaw

| label7 = Programmer Template:Pluralize from text | data7 = Howard Scott Warshaw

| label8 = Artist Template:Pluralize from text | data8 = Howard Scott Warshaw
Jerome Domurat

| label9 = Writer Template:Pluralize from text | data9 = Template:If first display both

| label10 = Composer Template:Pluralize from text | data10 = Template:If first display both

| label11 = Series | data11 = Template:If first display both

| label12 = Engine | data12 = Template:If first display both

| label13 = Platform Template:Pluralize from text | data13 = Atari 2600

| label14 = Release | data14 = December 1982<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

| label15 = Genre Template:Pluralize from text | data15 = Adventure

| label16 = ModeTemplate:Pluralize from text | data16 = Single-player

| label17 = Arcade system | data17 = Template:If first display both

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E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial is a 1982 adventure video game developed and published by Atari, Inc. for the Atari 2600, based on the film of the same name. The game's objective is to guide the eponymous character through various screens to collect three pieces of an interplanetary telephone that will allow him to contact his home planet.

The game was designed by Howard Scott Warshaw, who intended it to be an innovative adaptation, but Atari held unrealistic expectations for sales based on the international box-office success of the film. Negotiations for the game rights ended in late July 1982, giving Warshaw just over five weeks to develop the game in time to meet the production schedule for the 1982 Christmas season.<ref name="hswinterview">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The final release received negative reviews and is often cited as one of the worst video games of all time, as well as one of the biggest commercial failures in video game history. It is cited as a major contributing factor to the video game crash of 1983, and has been frequently referenced and mocked in popular culture as a cautionary tale about the dangers of rushed game development and studio interference.

In what was once deemed only an urban legend, reports from 1983 stated that as a result of overproduction and returns, unsold cartridges of E.T. were secretly buried in a landfill in Alamogordo, New Mexico, and covered with a layer of concrete. In April 2014, diggers hired to investigate the claim confirmed that the landfill contained several E.T. cartridges, among other games.<ref name="Fuel Industries access">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="abcnews1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> James Heller, the former Atari manager who was in charge of the burial, was at the excavation, and admitted to the Associated Press that 728,000 cartridges of various games (not just E.T.) were buried.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Marty Goldberg, co-author of the book Atari Inc.: Business Is Fun, added that the dump was in fact a clearing out of the Texas Atari manufacturing plant's unused cartridge stock of a number of titles, as well as console and computer parts.<ref name="PCMag">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the 2014 documentary Atari: Game Over, only 10% of the approximately 1,300 recovered were E.T. cartridges.

Gameplay

A horizontal rectangle video game screenshot that is a digital representation of a grass field with large holes. Two characters stand in the middle of the field.

E.T. meets Elliott in a field of wells. Reese's Pieces are scattered throughout the world and are represented by black dots.

E.T. is an adventure game in which players control the alien E.T. from a top-down perspective. The objective is to collect three pieces of an interplanetary telephone. The pieces are found scattered randomly throughout various pits (also referred to as wells). There is no overall time limit.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The player is provided with an on-screen energy bar, which decreases when E.T. performs any actions (including moving, teleporting, or falling into a pit, as well as levitating back to the top). To prevent this, E.T. can collect Reese's Pieces, which are used to restore his energy or, when nine are collected, E.T. can call Elliott to obtain a piece of the telephone, or the player can save the candy pieces for bonus points at the end. After the three phone pieces have been collected, the player must guide E.T. to an area where he can use the phone, which allows him to call his home planet. Once the call is made, a clock appears at the top right of the screen; E.T. has to arrive at the landing zone before it reaches zero.<ref name="manual">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Once E.T. gets to the forest where his ship abandoned him and stands and waits in the designated area for the ship to come, the ship will appear on-screen and take him back to his home planet. Then the game starts over, with the same difficulty level, while changing the location of the telephone pieces. The score obtained during the round is carried over to the next iteration.<ref name="CG">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> E.T. has three lives and if he dies within those three lives Elliott will come in and revive him. E.T. can get a fourth life if the player finds a geranium in one of the wells. According to the manual, a game can end "when E.T. runs out of energy or when you decide to quit playing".<ref name="manual" />

The game is divided into six environments, each representing a different setting from the film. To accomplish the objective, the player must guide E.T. into the wells. Once all items found in a well are collected, the player must levitate E.T. out of them.<ref name="abctv-rev">Template:Cite episode</ref> An icon at the top of each screen represents the current area, each area enabling the player to perform different actions. Antagonists include a scientist who takes E.T. for observation and an FBI agent who chases the alien to confiscate one of the collected telephone pieces or candy.<ref name="CG" /> The game offers diverse difficulty settings that affect the number and speed of humans present and the conditions needed to accomplish the objective.

Development

Following the commercial success of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial in June 1982, Steve Ross, CEO of Atari's parent company Warner Communications, began negotiations with the film's director Steven Spielberg and its distributor Universal Pictures to acquire a license to produce a video game based on the film. Later that month, Warner announced its exclusive worldwide rights to market coin-operated and console games based on E.T.<ref name="announce">Template:Cite news</ref> Although the exact details of the transaction were not disclosed in the announcement, it was later reported that Atari had paid Template:US$ (Template:US$ when adjusted for inflation to Template:Year) for the rights, a high figure for video game licensing at the time.<ref name=harmetz19830115>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="AVinterview">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="quoteable">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="NYT-Toys">Template:Cite news</ref> When asked by Ross what he thought about making an E.T.-based video game, Atari CEO Ray Kassar replied: "I think it's a dumb idea. We've never really made an action game out of a movie."<ref name="quoteable"/> An arcade game based on the E.T. property had also been planned, but this was deemed to be impossible given the short deadline.<ref name="rags">Template:Cite news</ref>

On July 27, 1982, after negotiations were completed, Kassar called Howard Scott Warshaw to commission him as developer of the video game adaptation.<ref name="GS-2600Keynote">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="DP">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Kassar informed him that Spielberg asked for Warshaw specifically and that development had to be completed by September 1 to meet a production schedule for the Christmas holiday season. Although Warshaw had spent over a year working on consecutive development schedules for games (seven months working on Yars' Revenge and six months on Raiders of the Lost Ark), he accepted the offer based on the challenge of completing a game in a short time frame and at Spielberg's request.<ref name="rags"/><ref name="DP" /> Warshaw considered it an opportunity to develop an innovative Atari 2600 game based on a film he enjoyed, "provided we reach the right arrangement".<ref name="DP" /><ref name="The Crash, at G4">Template:Cite episode</ref>Template:Rp Kassar reportedly offered Warshaw Template:USD and an all-expenses-paid vacation to Hawaii in compensation.<ref name="rags"/> Warshaw was flown via private jet to Warner Bros. Studios to meet with Spielberg.<ref name="DP" /><ref name="onceupon" />

Warshaw used those days to design the structure and segmented the concept into four ideas: world, objective, the path to achieve the objective, and obstacles. He envisioned a six-sided world that players could "float" around as the setting, and adapted part of the film's plot, E.T. phoning home, as the goal.<ref name="DP" /> The player would need to gather parts for a phone to call his ship and arrive at a special landing site to achieve this goal.<ref name="NPR">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Warshaw considered obstacles as an element that would determine the success of a game, and experienced difficulties when taking into account the time constraints and technical limitations of the console. Inspired by the film, adults were implemented as antagonists that would chase the alien. Pits were devised as an element to hide the pieces of the phone as well as expand the game world.<ref name="DP" />

Warshaw and other Atari executives presented this design to Spielberg, who was not enthusiastic.<ref name="GS-2600Keynote"/> According to Warshaw, Spielberg asked him, "Couldn't you do something more like Pac-Man?"<ref name="BBC">Template:Cite news</ref> Believing the concept too derivative of a common game design, Warshaw proceeded with his concept, which he believed would capture the sentimentality he saw in the original film.<ref name="AVinterview"/><ref name="GS-2600Keynote"/> (Warshaw later stated that, in retrospect, Spielberg's idea might have had merit.)<ref name="GS-2600Keynote"/> He spent the remaining time programming. Atari graphic designer Jerome Domurat assisted Warshaw with creating graphics for the game.<ref name="DP" /> Atari anticipated enormous sales based on the popularity of the film, as well as the stability of the video game industry at the time. Due to time limitations, Atari skipped audience testing.<ref name="wirt">Template:Cite magazine Template:Volume needed</ref> Emanual Gerard, then part of the Office of the President of Warner, later suggested that the company had fallen into a false sense of security by the success of its previous releases, particularly its console version of Pac-Man, which was commercially successful despite poor critical reaction.<ref name="serious">Template:Cite news</ref>

Reception

Anticipation for the E.T. video game was high, and Atari hoped it would be a sought-after Christmas gift.<ref name="BBC" /> In early December 1982, The New York Times reported that video games based on successful films, specifically E.T., would become "an increasingly profitable source" for video game development.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> At first, retailers ordered more supplies than what was expected to be sold, but Atari received an increasing number of order cancellations as new competitors entered the market, which they had not anticipated.<ref name="serious"/><ref name="zap">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="NY-Pileggi">Template:Cite magazine</ref> John Hubner and William Kistner of InfoWorld have attributed the cancellations to changes Atari initiated in its relationship to distributors. On November 1, 1982, Atari informed them that their contracts were canceled and that exclusive deals would be established with select distributors. Hubner and Kistner believed the action prompted retailers to cancel orders, which Atari had not properly tracked.<ref name="IW-Atari"/>

E.T. enjoyed initial commercial success, being among the top four on Billboard magazine's "Top 15 Video Games" sales list in December 1982 and January 1983.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The game sold over Template:Nowrap copies by the end of 1982. However, at least 669,000 copies were later returned in 1983.<ref name="Atari">Template:Cite book Via Template:Cite episode</ref> One retailer said that "mostly grandmothers" bought the game; because of word-of-mouth, children preferred the best-selling Pitfall!<ref name="harmetz19830115"/>

Hubner and Kistner commented that the large number of produced cartridges may have resulted in excess inventory regardless of E.T.Template:'s success.<ref name="IW-Atari">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Even though the game was a bestseller during the holiday season, retailers still stated that its sales figures did not meet expectations. Warner Communications also expressed disappointment at the number of sales.<ref name="NYT-Toys"/> Lower-than-expected sales figures combined with excess inventory, which produced a negative supply and demand event, prompted retailers to repeatedly discount the price. According to Ray Kassar, about three and a half million of the four million produced were sent back to the company as unsold inventory or customer returns.<ref name="kassarmaster">Template:Cite book</ref> Despite sales figures, the quantity of unsold merchandise, coupled with the expensive film license and the large number of returns, made E.T. a major financial failure for Atari.<ref name="polygon 2014">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Critical response

Upon release, the game was criticized by reviewers, with the gameplay and visuals both areas of concern. New York magazine's Nicholas Pileggi described it as a loser compared to other games Atari could have released during the time period, such as Donkey Kong and Frogger,<ref name="NY-Pileggi"/> and Video Games called it "really for kids (the littler ones)".<ref name="wiswell198303">Template:Cite news</ref> In 1984, the game was named by readers of Softline as the second-worst Atari program of 1983, after Congo Bongo.<ref name="stgame19840304">Template:Cite magazine</ref>

A horizontal rectangle video game screenshot that is a digital representation of the side view of a large hole. A green character sprite floats in the middle of the hole moving towards a multi-colored object sprite.

The player must navigate E.T. into wells to search for pieces of the interplanetary telephone. This aspect of the game was negatively received by players and critics.

Nevertheless, the game received some positive contemporary reviews. An editor for The Miami Herald described it as difficult to learn to play, but believed that doing so was worth it.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> For VidiotTemplate:'s Kevin Christopher, "about the only flaw with an otherwise A-1 game" was that E.T. repeatedly falls back into holes.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Arcade Express scored it six out of ten in December 1982.<ref name="Arcade Express #10">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Len Albin of TV Guide wrote that "after seeing the motion picture E.T. 14 times, there's no more suspense left—unless you bring home this one-player cartridge", adding that "it's certain that your patience won't run out—if you're a kid. (Adults may prefer to wait for a game based on My Dinner with Andre.)"<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

Later reviews were comparably negative. Kevin Bowen of GameSpy's Classic Gaming called the gameplay "convoluted and inane", also criticizing its story for departing from the serious tone of the film,<ref name="CG" /> and author Steven Kent described the game as "infamous" within the industry, citing "primitive" graphics, "dull" gameplay, and a "disappointing story".<ref name="quoteable"/> Children who scavenged the landfill where surplus Atari cartridges were buried gave away the E.T. cartridges, with one child noting that the game "sucked", and was impossible to complete.<ref name="cnet">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="statejournal">Template:Cite news</ref> Modern critics have also bemoaned the repeated need to fall down pits.<ref name="quoteable"/><ref name="PC World"/> Emru Townsend of PC World discussed the game with a group who described the pits as "monotonous".<ref name="PC World"/> Sean "Seanbaby" Reiley claimed that the pits are "time-consuming" and "difficult to leave without falling back in".<ref name="Seanbaby"/> Trent Ward, formerly a reviewer for Next Generation described returning the game as a result of the pits.<ref name="NG-40">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Classic Gaming argued that despite the negative reception, the game can be enjoyable after the player has learned to navigate the pits.<ref name="CG-Museum-2"/>

In published materials written more than a decade after its initial release, E.T. has frequently been listed among the worst video games ever made. Reiley ranked it number one in a list of the 20 worst games of all time in Electronic Gaming MonthlyTemplate:'s 150th issue.<ref name="Seanbaby">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Interviewed for the PBS documentary The Video Game Revolution, Michael Dolan, deputy editor of FHM magazine, gave E.T. a similar ranking.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Townsend placed E.T. at the top of his list of the worst video games, and said that "about a third of the people I quizzed came up with this title almost instantly, and it's not hard to see why."<ref name="PC World">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> GameTrailers ranked it second worst on their "Top Ten Best and Worst Games of All Time" list.<ref name="GT-BestWorst">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Template:Quote box

Critics often attribute the poor quality to the short development time.<ref name="GP-Secrets">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Racing-2"/> Townsend commented that the rushed development was very apparent.<ref name="PC World"/> Warshaw's contributions have been met with mixed responses. Classic Gaming called the game poorly designed, while IGN's Levi Buchanan stated the "impossibly tight schedule" given to Warshaw absolves him of blame.<ref name="retroign-tas">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Warshaw does not express regret for his part in E.T., and believes he created a good game given the time available to him.<ref name="AVinterview"/><ref name="DP" />

Impact

E.T. is often cited as one of the most important video games.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="GP-Important">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="1UP">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> GamePro, GameTrailers and Bowen cite the game as the first poor quality-film–video-game tie-in.<ref name="CG"/><ref name="GT-BestWorst"/><ref name="GP-10worst">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Patrick O'Luanaigh of SCi Games called it the most famous disaster story among film-inspired video games as well as within the industry.<ref name="ArtGame">Template:Cite book</ref> GamePro publication named it second-worst movie game ever, citing it as an example of how poor gameplay can bring negative reception to strong licenses.<ref name="GP-10worst"/>

Effect on Atari

Template:Further Template:Quote box As early as January 1983, after Atari admitted that the game had sold poorly, an industry executive said that "the lesson of E.T. has not been lost on the industry".<ref name="harmetz19830115" /> The game is associated as a cause of the video game industry crisis of 1983.<ref name="InfoWorld">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="PCAdvisor">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="WSJ">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Billboard magazine's Earl Paige reported that the large number of unsold E.T. games, along with an increase in competition, prompted retailers to demand official return programs from video game manufacturers.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> However, even before E.T was released, the industry was in an overall economic downturn from multiple factors, and E.T itself did not contribute greatly to the collapse, outside of Atari, by mid-1983. The release timing led to the game gaining the reputation of being responsible for the 1983 crash.<ref name="polygon 2014"/>

By the end of 1982, Atari had begun to lose dominance as more competitors entered the market.<ref name="NYT-Toys"/><ref name="harmetz19830115" /> GameSpy's Classic Gaming called E.T. Atari's biggest mistake, as well as the largest financial failure in the industry.<ref name="CG-Museum-2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="CG-Museum">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Reiley commented that the game's poor quality was responsible for ending the product life of the Atari 2600.<ref name="Seanbaby"/> Occurring soon after [[Pac-Man (Atari 2600 video game)|Pac-ManTemplate:'s negative critical response on the Atari 2600]], E.T.Template:'s poor reception was attributed by Kent to have had a negative impact on Atari's reputation and profitability.<ref name="quoteable"/> Authors Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost echoed similar comments about Pac-Man and E.T.Template:'s combined effect on the company's reputation and the industry's reaction.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Buchanan also cited the game as a factor in Atari and the industry's crash. He stated that the large amount of unsold merchandise was a financial burden to Atari, which pushed the company into debt.<ref name="retroign-tas"/>

Legacy

Atari video game burial

Template:Further

In September 1983, the Alamogordo Daily News of Alamogordo, New Mexico, reported in a series of articles that between ten and twenty<ref>Quote: "The number of actual trucks which have dumped locally was not known. Local BFI officials put it at 10. However, corporate spokesmen in Houston say it was closer to 20; and city officials say it is actually 14."
McQuiddy, "City cementing ban on dumping."</ref> semi-trailer truckloads of Atari boxes, cartridges, and systems from an Atari storehouse in El Paso, Texas, were crushed and buried at the landfill within the city, which was covered with concrete.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> It was the first time Atari dealt with the landfill, which was chosen because no scavenging was allowed and its garbage was crushed and buried nightly. Atari officials and others gave differing reports of what was buried,<ref>McQuiddy, "Dump here utilized."</ref><ref>McQuiddy, "City cementing ban on dumping."</ref><ref name="City to Atari">McQuiddy, "City to Atari."</ref> but it has been speculated that most unsold copies of E.T. are buried in this landfill, crushed and encased in cement.<ref name="titanic">Smith, "Raising Alamogordo's legendary Atari 'Titanic'"</ref> The story of the buried cartridges was erroneously regarded by some as an urban legend, with skeptics—including Warshaw—disregarding the official accounts.<ref name="AVinterview"/><ref name="Racing-2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="ArtGame"/>

On May 28, 2013, the Alamogordo City Commission approved Fuel Industries, an Ottawa-based entertainment company, for six months of landfill access both to create a documentary about the legend and to excavate the burial site.<ref name="Fuel Industries access" /> On April 26, 2014, remnants of E.T. and other Atari games were discovered in the early hours of the excavation.<ref name="abcnews1"/><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The burial of the E.T. cartridges is also the basis for the independent 2014 science fiction comedy Angry Video Game Nerd: The Movie, based on the webseries of the same name,<ref>Truitt, Brian. (September 2, 2014). {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} USA Today. USA Today</ref> and features Warshaw.<ref>Lowe, Justin. (5:11 PM PDT July 25, 2014). {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} The Hollywood Reporter</ref>

In December 2014, the Smithsonian Institution added an excavated cartridge of E.T. to their collection.<ref name="smithsonian">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite episode</ref> In 2015, The Henry Ford museum added to their collection several excavated cartridges and a video touchpad, a sample of landfill dirt taken from the site of the burial, and items of clothing worn by the excavation team. A selection of these items are on permanent display.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Centre for Computing History in Cambridge, England, also received some artefacts from the desert, which are on permanent display in the museum gallery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Attempts to improve the game

In 2006, Dennis Debro disassembled E.T., added comments to the generated source code, and released it to the public.<ref name="ITworld">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In January 2013, programmer David Richardson released several unofficial fixes for the game.<ref name="ITworld" /><ref name="PCworld">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Richardson">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Patches included the removal of pixel-perfect collision detection, which caused E.T. to fall into a pit every time his sprite touched a pit entry.<ref name="PCworld" />

References

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Bibliography

Periodicals

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External links

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E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial manual at archive.org
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Template:E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial Template:Atari 2600

E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (video game)

Contents

Gameplay

Development

Reception

Critical response

Impact

Effect on Atari

Legacy

Atari video game burial

Attempts to improve the game

See also

References

Bibliography

Periodicals

External links

Navigation menu

E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (video game)

Gameplay

Development

Reception

Critical response

Impact

Effect on Atari

Legacy

Atari video game burial

Attempts to improve the game

See also

References

Bibliography

Periodicals

External links

Navigation menu

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