Edible mushroom

Commercially cultivated Asian fungi (clockwise from left): enoki, beech mushroom (brown and white variations), king oyster mushroom and shiitake

Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of numerous species of properly identified and prepared fungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including their palatability and absence of dangerous mycotoxins. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value, often either being cultivated or harvested wild. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain may be collected on a smaller scale.

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genus Amanita, particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning. Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals from polluted locations, accumulating pollutants and potentially lethal heavy metals.

Psychoactive mushrooms can also be confused with edible species. Additionally, mushrooms were consumed medicinally in traditional medicine, but are not upheld by evidence.

Description

Assorted wild edible mushrooms

Mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand.<ref name="def">Template:Cite book</ref> The act of foraging fungi is referred to as mushroom hunting. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers.Template:Citation needed

Edibility may be defined by criteria including desirable taste and aroma and the absence of poisonous effects on humans.<ref name="Mattila et al">Template:Cite journal</ref> Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

List of edible mushrooms

Scientific name	Common name	Description	Distribution	Cultivation	Edibility
Agaricus arvensis	Horse mushroom	Resembles Amanita species		Harvested wild	Edible for most people, but can resemble deadly AmanitasTemplate:Sfn
Agaricus bisporus	Button mushroom, common mushroom, cremini, portobello, and others<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="psu.edu">Template:Cite web</ref>	As it ages, it turns from small, white and smooth to large and light brown.	Europe and North America, native to grasslands	Widely cultivated
Agaricus campestris	Field mushroom			Harvested wild	Choice,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but can resemble poisonous species<ref name="Oregon">Template:Cite book</ref>
Agaricus silvaticus	Pinewood mushroom			Harvested wild	Edible cooked,Template:Sfn<ref name="tfb">Template:Cite book</ref> but resembles some inedible speciesTemplate:Sfn
Aleuria aurantia	Orange peel fungus			Harvested wild
Amanita caesarea	Caesar's mushroom			Harvested wild
Amanita fulva	Tawny grisette				Must be cooked
Amanita muscaria					Parboiling required to leach out toxins;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> fresh mushrooms cause vomiting, twitching, drowsiness, and hallucinations due to the presence of muscimol. Ibotenic acid is not present in high enough concentration to produce any physical or psychological effects unless massive amounts are ingested.
Amanita rubescens	Blusher				Must be cooked
Armillaria mellea	Honey mushroom			Harvested wild
Boletus badius	Bay bolete			Harvested wild
Boletus edulis	Porcino		Europe	Commercially harvested	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn
Boletus pinophilus	Pine bolete<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>			Commercially harvested
Boletus variipes				Commercially harvested	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn
Calbovista subsculpta	Sculptured giant puffball	Up to Template:Convert wide	Western North America in montane areas	Commercially harvested	Choice while the gleba is still firm and whiteTemplate:Sfn
Calocybe gambosa	St. George's mushroom			Harvested wild
Calvatia cyathiformis	Purple-spored puffball			Harvested wild
Calvatia gigantea	Giant puffball	Up to Template:Convert wide and Template:Convert<ref name="Kew">Template:Cite web</ref>	Temperate areas around the world in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests from late summer and autumn<ref name="Kew" />Template:Sfn	Commercially harvested	Choice when immature and white, but may cause a laxative effectTemplate:Sfn
Calvatia utriformis (syn. Lycoperdon caelatum)				Harvested wild
Cantharellus cibarius	Golden chanterelle		Europe<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>	Commercially harvested	Choice<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> but resembles some poisonous mushroomsTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Chroogomphus	Pine-spikes or spike-caps			Harvested wild
Clavariaceae	Coral fungi			Harvested wild
Clavulinaceae	Coral fungi			Harvested wild
Clitocybe nuda	BlewitTemplate:Sfn			Commercially harvested
Coprinopsis atramentaria (syn. Coprinus atramentarius)	Common inkcap				Toxic if consumed with alcohol due to the presence of coprine
Coprinus comatus	Shaggy mane, shaggy inkcap or lawyer's wig			Harvested wild	Must be cooked as soon as possible after harvesting or the caps will darken as they deliquesce and turn to ink
Cortinarius caperatus	Gypsy mushroom			Commercially harvested	Choice,Template:Sfn but can resemble some poisonous European species<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Craterellus cornucopioides	Trumpet of death or horn of plenty			Commercially harvested	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn
Craterellus tubaeformis	Tube chanterelle or yellowfoot	Small mushroom		Commercially harvested	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn
Cyclocybe aegerita	Poplar			Commercially cultivated	Difficult to identify<ref name="maggie">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="medicalmushrooms">Template:Cite web</ref>
Cyttaria espinosae				Harvested wild
Fistulina hepatica	Beefsteak polypore or ox tongue			Harvested wild
Flammulina filiformis	Enoki			Commercially cultivated	Asian cuisine<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
Flammulina velutipes	Velvet shankTemplate:Sfn			Harvested wild
Gomphidius glutinosus	Slimy spike-cap			Harvested wild
Grifola frondosa	Hen of the woods or sheep's head	Large mushroom	Eastern North America	Commercially harvested	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn but some may be allergicTemplate:Sfn
Gyromitra esculenta	False morel, turban or brain mushroom				Parboiling required to reduce gyromitrin toxicity, which may not be fully effective
Hericium erinaceus	Lion's maneTemplate:Sfn	A tooth fungus		Commercially harvested
Hydnum repandum	Sweet tooth or hedgehog mushroom<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>			Commercially harvested
Hygrophorus chrysodon	Gold flecked woodwax			Harvested wild
Hypsizygus tessulatus	Beech mushroom			Commercially cultivated	Tough fleshTemplate:Sfn
Kalaharituber pfeilii				Harvested wild
Lactarius corrugis
Lactarius deliciosus	Saffron milk cap			Commercially harvested	Not necessarily choice, but popular in RussiaTemplate:Sfn
Lactarius deterrimus	Orange milkcap<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>			Harvested wild
Lactarius hygrophoroides
Lactarius indigoTemplate:Sfn				Harvested wild
Lactarius paradoxus
Lactarius rubrilacteusTemplate:Sfn				Harvested wild
Lactarius subdulcis	Mild milkcap			Harvested wild	Edible when cooked but not choice<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Lactarius volemus	Fishy milkcap			Harvested wild	Granular textureTemplate:Sfn
Laetiporus sulphureus	Sulphur shelf, chicken mushroom	A distinct bracket fungus		Harvested wild
Leccinum aurantiacum	Red-capped scaber stalk			Harvested wild
Leccinum scabrum	Birch bolete			Harvested wild
Leccinum versipelle (syn. Boletus testaceoscaber)	Orange birch bolete			Harvested wild
Lentinula edodes	Shiitake<ref name="psu.edu"/>			Commercially cultivated
Lepista saeva (syn. Tricholoma personatum)	Field blewit or blue leg				Must be cooked before eating
Macrolepiota procera	Parasol mushroom		Globally widespread in temperate regions	Harvested wild
Marasmius oreades	Fairy ring champignon			Harvested wild
Morchella spp. including Morchella esculenta	Morels	Can resemble poisonous false morels including Gyromitra esculenta	Open scrub, woodland or open ground in late spring	Commercially harvested; difficult to grow commercially<ref name="nytimes">Template:Cite news</ref>	Potentially toxic if uncooked or consumed with alcohol<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>
Phallus indusiatus	Basket stinkhorn			Commercially cultivated	Asian cuisine<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Pleurotus spp.	Oyster mushrooms			Commercially cultivated at an industrial scale<ref name="psu.edu" />
Pleurotus ostreatus	Oyster mushroom			Commercially harvested	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn but resembles inedible Lentinellus speciesTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Polyporus mylittae	Blackfellow's bread			Harvested wild
Polyporus squamosus	Dryad's saddle and pheasant's back mushroom			Harvested wild
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum	Toothed jelly fungus			Harvested wild
Ramariaceae spp.	Coral fungi			Harvested wild
Rhizopogon luteolus				Harvested wild
Russula laeta				Harvested wild
Sparassis crispa	Cauliflower mushroom			Harvested wild
Stropharia rugosoannulata	Wine cap			Commercially cultivated	ChoiceTemplate:Sfn
Suillus bovinus	Bovine bolete			Harvested wild
Suillus brevipes	Short-stemmed slippery Jack			Harvested wild
Suillus decipiens				Harvested wild
Suillus granulatus	Weeping bolete, granulated bolete			Harvested wild
Suillus grevillei	Tamarack jack			Harvested wild
Suillus luteus	Slippery jack			Harvested wild
Suillus pictus	Painted suillus			Harvested wild
Suillus tomentosus	Woolly-capped suillus			Harvested wild
Termitomyces		Includes the largest edible mushroom, Termitomyces titanicus, with a cap that averages 1 metre in diameter<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>	Grow out of termite mounds	Commercially harvested,Template:Citation needed with cultivation research underway<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Tremella fuciformis	White jelly mushroom			Commercially cultivated	Asian sweet dishes for texture<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Tricholoma matsutake	Template:Lang			Commercially harvested	Prized in Japanese cuisine
Tricholoma portentosum				Harvested wild
Tricholoma terreum	Grey knight				Might cause rhabdomyolysis
Tuber aestivum	Black summer truffle			Commercially harvested
Tuber borchii	Bianchetto truffle			Commercially harvested
Tuber brumale	Muscat truffle			Commercially harvested
Tuber indicum	Chinese black truffle			Commercially harvested
Tuber macrosporum	Smooth black truffle			Commercially harvested
Tuber melanosporum	Black truffle		Southern Europe	Commercially cultivated	Choice
Tuber mesentericum	Bagnoli truffle<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>			Commercially harvested
Ustilago maydis	Corn smut		Pathogens of cereals	Harvested wild	Considered a delicacy in Mexico; used as fillings in quesadillas, tacos and soups<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Verpa bohemica					Choice for some sometimes reported as toxic, possibly containing monomethylhydrazine<ref>FDA Import Alert IA2502 Template:Webarchive</ref>
Volvariella bombycina	Silky rosegillTemplate:Sfn			Commercially cultivated
Volvariella volvacea	Paddy straw mushroom or straw mushroomTemplate:Sfn			Commercially cultivated

Cultivation

Mushroom and truffle production
Template:Small

Template:CHN	47,143,126
Template:JAP	462,158
Template:USA	302,390
Template:POL	240,400
Template:NLD	205,000
World	50,010,109
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name="faostat">Template:Cite web</ref>

Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular yet remains a challenge to cultivate.Template:Citation needed Some mushrooms, particularly mycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated.Template:Citation needed

In 2023, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization was 50 million tonnes, led by China with 94% of the total (table).

Safety concerns

Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw.<ref name="ncpc">Template:Cite web</ref> Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death.<ref name=ncpc/><ref name="Barbee et al">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus Amanita, particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and cause food poisoning.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> When eating any fungus for the first time, only a small quantity of one species should be consumed at a time, allowing for several hours to identify any potential allergic reaction.Template:Sfn Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals, including arsenic and iron, sometimes in lethal concentrations.<ref name="kalac00">Template:Cite journal</ref> On the other hand, some cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of slightly poisonous mushrooms enough to be consumed as survival food; for example, many prized fungi will cause gastric upset when eaten uncooked, such as Morchella species.<ref name=":2" />

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to contain psychedelic drugs—the so-called magic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis, with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin.Template:Citation needed Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.Template:Citation needed

Nutrition

Boiled Agaricus mushrooms are 92% water, 3% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 0.3% fat (table). In a reference amount of Template:Convert, boiled white Agaricus mushrooms supply 28 calories of food energy and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid, copper, and selenium (23-56% DV), with a moderate content of potassium (12% DV, table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts of micronutrients (table).

Vitamin D

The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light, even after harvesting and being processed into dry powder.<ref name=LATeat/><ref name=d2/>

Name	Chemical composition	Structure
Vitamin D1	ergocalciferol with lumisterol, 1:1<ref name="pmid22868105">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Vitamin D2	ergocalciferol (made from ergosterol)
Vitamin D3	cholecalciferol (made from 7-Dehydrocholesterol in the skin).

When exposed to UV light before or after harvest, mushrooms convert their large concentrations of ergosterol into vitamin D₂.<ref name="LATeat">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="d2">Template:Cite journal</ref> This is similar to the reaction in humans, where vitamin D₃ is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's daily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much.<ref name="LATeat" /> Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D₂.<ref name=d2/>

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms is ergocalciferol, or vitamin D₂. This is not the same as cholecalciferol, called vitamin D₃, which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D₂ has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used in food fortification and nutritional supplements, vitamin D₃ is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.Template:Citation needed

Research

Template:As of, mushroom consumption has not been shown to conclusively affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Uses

A vendor in Guatemala with a variety of mushrooms for sale

Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers. Mushrooms can be purchased fresh when in season and many species are also sold dried.

Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be correctly identified. Accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible poisoning. Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.Template:Citation needed

History

The earliest evidence of consumption of mushrooms comes from 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile.Template:Cn Ötzi, the mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom in his belongings.Template:Cn Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat.<ref name=Jordan2006>Template:Cite book</ref> The Forme of Cury, a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Culinary

Cooking

Stuffed mushrooms prepared using portobello mushrooms

Cooking mushrooms before consumption is often required, both to eliminate mycotoxins including trace levels of toxic hydrazines and also to improve palatability and texture.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Chitin, a structural polymer in the cell walls of mushrooms, does not break down until Template:Convert, which is not reached in any normal cooking.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, chitin connections may be broken down by cooking, allowing for easier digestion.<ref name=":1" />

Storage

A collection of dried mushrooms

Mushrooms should be used as soon as possible, even if refrigerated (particularly Coprinus species).Template:Sfn Mushrooms can be frozen, but they freeze best when cooked first.Template:Sfn They can also be canned, dried, pickled, or salted.Template:Sfn

In traditional medicine

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain of traditional medicine<ref name=Hobbs1995>Template:Cite book</ref> for which there is no direct high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy.<ref name="mlp2019">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Money">Template:Cite journal</ref> (Since about the mid-20th century, some compounds found in fungi have been developed scientifically for medicine, e.g. antibiotics.)<ref name="pmid16589015">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="HoMBRG">Template:Cite Q</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as for Template:Nowrap<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> or lentinan.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants for radiation treatments and chemotherapy.<ref name="CancerResearchUK">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Borchers>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Gallery

Commercially harvested species

{{#invoke:Gallery|gallery}}

See also

• List of foods
• List of Chinese mushrooms and fungi
• Mushroom diet
• Mushroom ketchup
• List of mushroom dishes

References

Sources

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

External links

• Template:Commons category inline
• Template:Cite NSRW